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讲座：“他们是如何制作那些地图的”

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一部地图制作史探讨了在卫星和现代测量出现之前，观察者如何测量地球、记录坐标并绘制地图。

麦克朗自然历史与文化博物馆 · 发布于 2012-11-30 · 1 小时 15 分钟 · 英语 · 许可：CC BY 3.0 · 来源：在 YouTube 上观看

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AI生成的摘要

本讲座探讨了在航空摄影和卫星出现之前地图是如何构建的。它将人们对地球的观察与埃拉托色尼和托勒密的方法联系起来，然后沿着实用导航，讲述波托兰海图与海上所用仪器。后面的例子考察非洲和五大湖的测绘，包括从早期地图抄来的错误以及通过土地测量所做的改进。讲者挑战了制图知识在每一步都只是变得更准确这一观念。所链接的章节让读者能够比较测量方法与信息被保存、复用以及有时被误解的方式。

要点

[8:23] 埃拉托色尼的例子将阳光和距离的观察与估算地球大小联系起来。
[28:47] 托勒密的地理学著作通过描述和记录的坐标流传下来。
[1:06:51] 五大湖的例子表明，借用早期地图既可能保存知识，也可能保存错误。

根据文字记录生成。请对照原始视频核查所链接的段落。简要说明和要点由 Vidleaf 于 2026-10-21 审核。

完整概述

这场题为“他们是怎么做到的？”的演讲，首先感谢杰夫和麦克朗博物馆工作人员的主办，并邀请大家参观博物馆的地图展览，称其为北美、世界、田纳西及该地区重要地图的精品收藏。演讲从一个基本的地图制作问题开始——如何绘制你站立之处的地图——并利用在不断增加的高度上的可见范围，从六英尺高的人看到约三英里，到哥伦比亚号航天飞机在1993的163英里高处看到约1,200英里，来展示高度如何扩展地图制作的视野。历史地图，包括约1565的葡萄牙地图集地图、约1565的福拉尼地图、1677在美洲出版的第一张地图，以及约1825的史密斯将军的田纳西政府地图，被放在航空和卫星照片旁边，据说叠加得相当好，尽管一些特征如楠塔基特和玛莎葡萄园岛的位置不太对。演讲称哥伦布同时代人认为世界是平的这一说法是神话，以月球上的圆形阴影作为地球球形的证据，并描述了埃拉托色尼早在公元前200年如何利用锡恩的太阳和亚历山大港的阴影角度来估算地球周长，误差为9%。演讲将克劳狄乌斯·托勒密介绍为有史以来最具影响力的制图师，涵盖他的《地理学》、他将有人居住的世界视为球体四分之一的观点、他的两种投影、他的世界地图加上26幅区域地图，以及他确定纬度和经度的方法，包括象限仪、最长日照差异、日食计时和调整后的行程距离，并以马丁·贝海姆的1492地球仪作为结尾，指出没有证据表明哥伦布曾见过它，尽管他见过它或类似的东西并非不可能。后面的部分追溯了托勒密的《地理学》如何作为数字数据保存下来——一本关于投影的教科书加上8,000个坐标的列表——在1300年代末于君士坦丁堡被重新发现，并在1400年左右成为标准世界地图集，至少持续了100年；地中海水手如何使用波特兰海图、罗盘、测速仪和线以及特拉弗斯板，其中《航海指南》被绘制成相当接近现代轮廓的地中海地图；类似的方法和仪器如何被用于更大规模地绘制非洲地图，直到迪亚士在1488年绕过好望角；以及五大湖是如何被绘制的，论证制图进步并非线性，1671年的耶稣会苏必利尔湖地图非常准确，制图师之间借用了想象中的岛屿，米切尔地图中不存在的岛屿在1783条约中被引用，而这个问题最终通过西北领地网格在陆地上得到解决，该网格首次在1787年的七区试行。

带时间戳的章节摘要

开场致谢和地图展览介绍

[0:00] 演讲者感谢杰夫和麦克朗博物馆工作人员邀请他并主办他几天。
[0:12] 他问有多少人看过地图展览，在相当多的人举手后，敦促那些还没看过的人去看看。
[0:27] 他称这是一个非常精美的非常重要的地图收藏，包括北美和世界的伟大地图以及田纳西和该地区的有趣地图。
[0:40] 他希望他的演讲能帮助听众更好地欣赏展览。
[0:49] 他的主题题为“他们是怎么做到的？”

高度如何扩展地图制作视野

[1:00] 一个基本的地图制作问题是，如何绘制你站立之处的地图。
[1:15] 从平坦表面，一个六英尺高的人可以看到大约三英里，这太有限，无法显示太多地形细节。
[1:35] 在约500英尺处，可见范围增加到约27英里，足以辨认出小海湾。
[1:50] 从像圣哈辛托山那样10,000英尺高的山上，可见范围延伸到约125英里，在晴朗的日子里如果你知道怎么做，足以画出一幅相当好的草图。
[2:13] 在飞机上30,000英尺处，你可以看到大约212英里，并开始辨认出相当多的地形细节。
[2:36] 从1993的哥伦比亚号航天飞机在163英里高处，你可以看到约1,200英里，直到阿拉伯半岛中部。
[3:15] 纽伯里收藏中约1565的葡萄牙地图集地图显示了非洲之角和阿拉伯半岛，似乎与航空照片对齐。

历史地图与卫星图像

[4:17] 蓝色弹珠照片是从1972年的阿波罗17在28,000英里的高度拍摄的。
[4:32] 在这张著名的照片中，整个地球可见，整个非洲大陆都可以看到，除了被云层遮挡的一小部分。
[4:47] 一个名叫福拉尼的人约1565制作的意大利地图与航空照片叠加得相当好。
[5:13] 一张从东向西看的新英格兰地图显示了科德角、温尼珀索基湖、罗德岛和康涅狄格河。
[5:35] 这是1677在约翰·哈伯德的《新英格兰历史》一书中在美洲出版的第一张地图。
[5:46] 放在现代卫星照片旁边，它相当了不起，尽管楠塔基特和玛莎葡萄园岛的位置不太对，罗德岛也更靠外。
[6:18] 史密斯将军约1825的田纳西政府地图显示了诺克斯维尔在两条东北-西南走向的河流和山脉线之间的位置。

埃拉托色尼测量地球

[7:02] 哥伦布同时代人认为世界是平的这一想法是一个神话；任何有学术抱负或实际航海经验的人都知道世界不是平的。
[7:34] 一本宇宙学文本提供了地球球形的证明：地球在月球上的阴影是圆的，不同于四面体、金字塔或立方体会投射的形状。
[8:23] 早在200公元前，埃拉托色尼就能对地球的实际周长做出相当不错的估算。
[8:36] 埃拉托色尼知道，在阿斯旺大坝附近的赛伊尼，某一天太阳正好直射在一口井的正上方，可以从井中看到太阳的倒影。
[9:07] 同一天在亚历山大港，埃拉托色尼测量了一根垂直杆子投下的影子的角度。
[9:22] 他假设赛伊尼和亚历山大港大致位于一条南北线上——它们确实大致如此——并运用了初等数学。
[10:19] 他计算出该角度为7.2度，即圆周的50分之一，并估算距离为5,000斯塔德。
[10:33] 将5,000斯塔德乘以50得到约24,860或24,000英里；实际数字是24,860，所以他偏差了9%，考虑到他的仪器，这相当合理。

托勒密及其世界地图

[11:08] 克劳狄乌斯·托勒密被描述为有史以来最具影响力的制图学家。
[11:15] 托勒密生活在公元二世纪，大约在公元125年前后活动。
[11:32] 托勒密是一位博学家，撰写了关于天文学、音乐和数学的论著，可能最为人所知的是作为天文学家。
[11:42] 他写了一部名为《地理学》的论著，论述世界地图的绘制。
[11:53] 托勒密知道地球是一个圆球，并持有希腊人的普遍观点，即有人居住的地区（oikoumine）是球体的四分之一。
[12:31] 托勒密发明了他的第一个投影——一个显示180度的圆柱投影。
[12:43] 地图的西端是幸运群岛，有人认为它们是加那利群岛和马德拉群岛，也有人认为是佛得角。
[13:36] 托勒密的第二个投影更能体现球体形状，并被用于他的世界地图。
[14:03] 在地图上，非洲南部大部分未知，当时的假设是印度洋是一个封闭的海。
[14:36] 托勒密制作了一幅世界地图以及26幅区域地图：10幅欧洲、4幅非洲和12幅亚洲。

托勒密的制图方法

[14:53] 托勒密讨论了如何制作地图，理想情况下从一个大球开始，然后是球体的一部分，最后确定在平面上使用两种投影。
[15:27] 他将他所知道的世界上所有地方都绘制在这些投影上。
[15:32] 象限仪是当时可用的主要工具之一，通过它用加权铅垂线瞄准，直接读取纬度，例如从北极星读取。
[15:53] 纬度相对容易，古代天文学家拥有非常大的操作象限仪，可能能够相当准确地读取纬度。
[16:11] 他还根据最长白天和夜晚长度的差异来确定南北位置，这在赤道相等，但随纬度增加（麦罗埃约1小时，埃及南部2，亚历山大港3.5，丹麦9以上）。
[17:00] 他可能从在英格兰、德国、西班牙和法国活动的罗马军团那里收集了最长白天的信息。
[17:19] 他相当准确地知道亚历山大港位于北纬31度，并计算出它位于幸运群岛以东约60度30分。
[17:39] 经度就是时间：一小时等于15分钟经度；精确时钟的解决方案直到1780年代约翰·哈里森才最终确定，但托勒密知道用月食计时作为替代方法。
[18:46] 关于各地距离的大量信息已经收集起来，部分来自在托勒密时代前不久在帝国各地游走并活跃于不列颠的罗马人。

托勒密的制图方法

[19:04] 伦敦的位置是固定的，托勒密的大部分经度可能是根据距离测量拼凑而成的。
[19:18] 托勒密可以使用亚历山大图书馆，想必也能接触到罗马的记录和行程表，这些现在几乎全部失传了。
[19:36] 他知道行程距离，例如从亚历山大港到阿尔及尔或突尼斯的罗马里数。
[19:54] 由于任何道路都有些弯曲，他允许五分之一的误差，将500罗马里算作400。
[20:12] 他使用调整后的距离来确定突尼斯、伦敦或其他城市的经度。
[20:21] 他很可能缓慢而费力地在一幅巨大的地图上工作，也许是在墙上或地板上。
[20:49] 通过逐渐移动和调整各个地点的位置，他制作出了他的世界地图。

贝海姆地球仪与哥伦布的航行

[21:03] 这个地球仪是由在葡萄牙工作的德国人马丁·贝海姆于1492年制作的。
[21:06] 没有证据表明哥伦布见过这个地球仪，尽管他见过它或类似的东西并非不可能。
[21:28] 这个地球仪将托勒密的世界包裹在一个球体上。
[21:35] 托勒密不接受埃拉托色尼对地球大小的测量，并提出了一个稍小的球体。
[21:51] 托勒密夸大了有人居住地区的经度长度，因此将其包裹在一个较小的球体上就产生了太平洋的视野。
[22:24] 地球仪上显示了日本（Sipangu）和中国沿海的岛屿，这些信息来自马可·波罗。
[22:30] 地球仪显示了哥伦布认为自己正在做的事情：向西航行经过大西洋岛屿，直到到达中国海岸附近的岛屿。
[23:01] 据报道，哥伦布直到去世都认为他发现的是那些岛屿。

托勒密的不列颠地图及其影响

[23:13] 通过托勒密的第一幅欧洲区域地图——不列颠群岛，考察了他详细的制图过程。
[23:28] 托勒密对区域地图的排序，从不列颠群岛开始，然后是伊比利亚，这一做法在 atlas 传统中根深蒂固，包括亚伯拉罕·奥特柳斯的1570地图集以及直到20世纪的大多数地图集。
[24:27] 托勒密的大不列颠地图记录了许多城镇地名、河流位置、民族名称，以及苏格兰的山脉和森林等自然特征。
[25:10] 托勒密从该区域的投影开始，并放置了他对伦敦经纬度的最佳猜测。
[25:21] 罗马军团遍布大不列颠，托勒密拥有给出各地之间距离的行程表，尤其是城镇之间的距离。
[26:03] 几个地点相对于彼此的位置建立得相当准确，例如 Ratae（莱斯特）、Deva（切斯特）、Lindum（林肯）和 Eboracum（约克）。
[26:34] 有些人认为罗马人有一种用于测量的三角测量法，托勒密可能从军队中的某个人那里得到了一张英格兰地图。
[27:03] 利用他所掌握的最佳信息，托勒密绘制了轮廓，并在他的大地图上标出了河口和地点。

托勒密的《地理学》通过坐标流传下来

[27:34] 地图极其脆弱，无论当时还是现在都容易磨损。
[27:45] 大多数地图如果被使用的话，都会被用到报废。
[27:53] 如果托勒密在羊皮纸或纸莎草上制作了一张世界大地图和 26 张区域地图，也许会有副本被制作出来并流传千年。
[28:15] 托勒密至少制作了一张大地图，但他的《地理学》之所以流传下来，是因为他将其数字化了。
[28:25] 他从城镇的经纬度开始，然后从底图上读取其他坐标。
[28:47] 他记录了诸如 53 度 30 分纬度和大约 22 度 10 分经度这样的坐标。
[29:02] 他对河口、海角和其他特征都这样做了，为不列颠群岛记录了数十个，也许多达两百个点。

托勒密的《地理学》及其复兴

[29:26] 图中所示的拉丁文手稿是托勒密《地理学》的副本，原书用希腊文写成，一些希腊文手稿至今仍然存在。
[29:39] 流传下来的托勒密《地理学》不包含地图，而是一本关于投影的教科书、对制图的一般描述，以及一份 8,000 个坐标的列表。
[29:53] 每个条目列出一个地点及其纬度和分数、经度和分数。
[30:04] 托勒密将分钟表示为度的分数，例如将 50 度 30 分说成 50 度半，将 50 度 45 分说成 50 度半又四分之一。
[30:23] 他们没有统一分数的概念。
[30:38] 流传下来的《地理学》仅由数字和字母数字数据组成，本质上是数字数据。
[30:44] 有一些证据表明阿拉伯人能够接触到托勒密的《地理学》，但直到 1300 年代后期，它基本上已对西方文化失传。
[31:01] 在君士坦丁堡发现了一份希腊文手稿，那里的一位地理学家按照托勒密的指示绘制了 8,000 个地点并制作了一本地图集。
[31:15] 未知他制作的是一张大地图还是区域地图，但他遵循了托勒密的指示。
[31:28] 该地图集很快被翻译成拉丁文，制作了许多副本，并在 1400 年左右成为世界上第一本标准地图集。

托勒密的地图集与弯曲的苏格兰地图

[31:44] 托勒密的地图集作为世界标准地图集至少保持了 100 年。
[31:52] 托勒密的《地理学》是最早出版的书籍之一，第一版带地图的版本于 1477 年出版，多个版本一直出现到 16 世纪。
[32:04] 奥特柳斯的《寰宇大观》大约在 1570 年被认为是第一部现代地图集，但至少到 1520 年代，托勒密公元 125 年的地图仍是理解世界地理的主要依据。
[32:27] 当新发现出现时，制图者必须随机应变；一张展出的地图显示了一个基本上是托勒密式的世界，上面附加了一些美洲的东西。
[32:47] 演讲者确信（尽管没有读到有人明确这样说），苏格兰看起来弯曲是因为那部分苏格兰应该向上旋转 90 度。
[33:08] 旋转 90 度后，这张地图对苏格兰的描绘还不错，显示了半岛、马里湾以及西侧类似峡湾的特征。
[33:25] 对于公元 125 年来说，这已经很不错了，绘制者是一个从未离开亚历山大港、相距几千英里之外的人，可能根据口头描述工作。

托勒密弯曲的不列颠与图勒

[33:40] 托勒密不得不弯曲不列颠，因为图勒岛的存在，在一张 1539 地图上，图勒被显示为最北的可居住地。
[34:00] 有些人认为图勒可能是冰岛，也可能是北大西洋中另一个遥远的岛屿。
[34:08] 托勒密的信息可以追溯到皮西亚斯，他说图勒位于不列颠以北六天航程处，靠近冰冻的海。
[34:19] 当时的想法是，北纬 60 度以北很远的地方，整个海洋都结冰了，因此无法居住。
[34:27] 托勒密从罗马军团那里获得了大量关于不列颠和苏格兰的信息，并知道更北的地方还有更多陆地。
[34:45] 托勒密已将图勒标绘在一个位置，但如果这样放置，皮西亚斯所说的不列颠以北六天航程就不符合了。
[35:02] 像今天的许多科学家一样，托勒密试图以最合理的方式调整和理解数据。
[35:09] 他试图保持不列颠的长度，同时承认图勒几乎是可居住地的北部极限，所以他干脆把它弯曲了。

托勒密与波特兰海图

[35:54] 大约在 1400 年发现托勒密的《地理学》在制图史上具有划时代的意义。
[36:02] 基于经纬度网格的制图来自托勒密。
[36:14] 另一个平行的地中海传统开始得早几百年。
[36:20] 那个平行的传统就是波特兰海图。

最早的波特兰海图特征

[36:31] 图中展示了已知最早的波特兰海图副本。
[36:38] 波特兰海图几乎都绘制在兽皮上，即犊皮纸上。
[36:41] 在轮廓中可以看到动物的颈部。
[36:44] 该地图描绘了地中海，标有直布罗陀海峡、北非和意大利靴形半岛。
[37:05] 黑海几乎总是被包含在波特兰海图中，尽管在这里已经有些侵蚀。
[37:16] 这幅地图是制图史上最重要的地图之一，于1840年代在巴黎的一家旧货店被发现，现藏于拿骚图书馆。
[37:41] 波特兰海图总是有一个圆形网格，内接大圆，中央辐射出风向玫瑰。

波特兰海图：特征与实物证据

[37:59] 恒向线（R-H-U-M-V）在波特兰海图上辐射延伸。
[38:04] 波特兰海图上的地名总是写在内陆，尽可能保持水域空白。
[38:14] 恒向线通常颜色不同——根据海图不同，有绿色、红色或黑色。
[38:25] 海图上用微小的符号表示岩石。
[38:30] 波特兰海图没有固定的“上方”；文字方向设计为可从不同方向阅读，因此绕岛航行意味着要转动海图。
[38:59] 纽伯里收藏的最早波特兰海图出自1456年，由马略卡岛的罗塞利制作，他在颈部签名。
[39:20] 海图勾勒出地中海及黑海，大多数还沿欧洲西海岸向上，通常包括不列颠群岛。
[39:31] 旗帜经常被放置在边框周围。
[39:38] 一些幸存的波特兰海图崭新而精美，可能是为富有的客户、客厅使用或图书馆使用而制作的。
[40:04] 一些海图显示出海使用过的痕迹，包括被钉在木滚筒上的孔洞，以及用于穿皮绳将其卷起系住的颈孔。
[40:25] 这幅海图显示出卷起和展开造成的磨损，一些旗帜显示出墨水颜料受潮的迹象。

使用波特兰海图绘制航线

[40:42] 纽伯里收藏的一幅地图集展开页，经过数字化拼接，用于展示航海者可能如何使用波特兰海图。
[41:02] 示例航线从梅利利亚（据信位于北非北海岸）到加塔角。
[41:22] 航海者可以在两地之间画出航线或放置平行尺。
[41:27] 将平行尺的一臂放在航线上，摆动另一臂直到与风向玫瑰对齐。
[41:43] 得出的方位介于北偏东和北东北之间。
[41:47] 航海者会尝试让罗盘读数略偏北偏东以东，希望能到达他的目标点。
[42:07] 海图在那里标出了一块大岩石，现代海图上也使用类似的标记来表示航行危险，小点表示浅滩。

早期导航：波特兰海图与罗盘

[42:25] 一些波特兰海图包含一个小船骨架，以标记沉船或沉没的船只。
[42:35] 主要的导航工具是罗盘。
[42:39] 真正古老的罗盘存世极少。
[42:46] 曾有人说罗盘发明于中国并传到地中海，但现在人们认为它可能是独立发明的。
[42:50] 文字证据提到在1200世纪初通过磁针航行。
[43:04] 比萨图大约在1200世纪末出现，时间大致相同。
[43:10] 最早的罗盘可能只是一根浮在水面上的针，由表面张力支撑，有时穿过一根稻草以保持漂浮。
[43:24] 到很早的时候，他们已经设计出一种下面附有针的罗盘卡。
[43:31] 他们需要一个沙漏，或者在某些情况下需要一分钟沙漏或半分钟沙漏。

海上测速：计程仪与绳索

[43:39] 至少从中世纪晚期一直到18世纪，航海者使用计程仪和绳索来收集关于速度的信息。
[43:57] 该方法需要一个带有大量绳子的卷轴、一个计程板或木片，以及一个可用于半分钟的沙漏。
[44:11] 这可能需要至少三个人：一人握住计程仪卷轴，一人握住30秒沙漏，一人握住加重木片。
[44:43] 系在绳子上的红布表示木片已远离船尾，不受尾流影响。
[45:01] 当红线越过栏杆时，翻转沙漏，他们数出在沙漏漏完之前越过了多少个绳结。
[45:34] 速度记录在航迹板上，这是一种简单的装置，即使是不识字但熟悉罗盘方位和数字1到12的水手也能使用。
[46:01] 航迹板上的每一圈同心圆代表半小时，最多到四小时的班次。
[47:08] 每小时他们使用计程仪，并在这里标绘速度，每条线代表值班的一小时。
[47:55] 他们可以记录到四分之一节，从而给出相当准确的速度估计。
[48:01] 在四小时值班结束时，水手可以交出一块完整记录了距离、方向和速度的板。

Portolani与《航海指南》

[48:39] 西门子关于港口间距离的许多信息以行程形式记录。
[49:05] 这些记录被称为Portolani，即港口之间的航行指南书籍。
[49:16] 最著名的Portolani是1200世纪末的《航海指南》。
[49:23] 它列出了诸如从一个港口到另一个港口向西北30英里的条目，并偶尔附有关于该地的注释。
[50:06] 退休医生乔纳森·兰德曼将《航海指南》中的所有测量值转换为标准距离和方向。
[50:50] 绘制这些距离和方位实际上生成了一幅地中海地图。
[51:08] 测量涉及闭合误差，但像直布罗陀海峡这样的闭合区域可以调整以适应。
[51:43] 结果非常接近现代地中海的轮廓。
[51:58] 基本的波托兰海图很可能是通过这些表格经过一个漫长过程生成的，其中包含许多错误和部分地图。

绘制非洲的导航仪器

[52:47] 使用许多相同仪器的类似方法在绘制大陆地图时以更大的规模出现。
[53:04] 葡萄牙人绘制非洲西海岸地图的努力涉及象限仪之外的仪器。
[53:14] 十字测天仪的工作原理是将一根杆与地平线和所引用的物体对齐，然后从滑动杆上读取角度。
[53:35] 展览包括一个模型和许多仪器，其中一些是演讲者从未见过的。
[53:44] 后测天仪使用与十字测天仪相同的原理，但你背对太阳，通过镜子或风向标读取其阴影。

托勒密的非洲与葡萄牙探险

[54:12] 像象限仪或十字测天仪这样的仪器被用来测量纬度。
[54:20] 葡萄牙人逐渐开始绘制非洲地图。
[54:28] 1489 地图的一部分显示了托勒密所知的非洲，包括西北部、北海岸和地中海北岸。
[54:43] 托勒密知道尼罗河，他们知道或认为知道其源头在月亮山脉，位于非洲南部的某个地方。
[54:54] 他们也知道或认为知道尼罗河尽头附近的大湖，演讲者毫不怀疑那是维多利亚湖和尼亚萨兰湖。
[55:16] 葡萄牙人做出了专门的努力，看看他们是否能绕过非洲，以及非洲是否包围了印度洋。
[55:32] 他们沿着西海岸航行，这是一个非常漫长的过程，在 1432 几年后到达了黄金河。
[56:01] 葡萄牙人花了大约 50 年时间才确定非洲的凸起部分，他们在河口使用纬度读数并记录距离和方向。
[56:28] 最终在 1485 年，不 1480，进行了一次绕过大陆的重大推进。

迪亚士的航行与马特卢斯的 1489 世界地图

[56:40] 巴尔托洛梅乌·迪亚士绕过了好望角，到达了大鱼河，在那里可以看到海岸线向北延伸。
[56:53] 这是迪亚士 1488 探险后所知的非洲。
[57:00] 该地图是德国人亨里库斯·马特卢斯在 1489 年制作的世界地图，作为手稿保存在大英图书馆。
[57:06] 另一份地理内容非常相似的马特卢斯地图副本在耶鲁大学。
[57:16] 该地图仍然显示托勒密被截断的南亚和他巨大的锡兰，即塔普罗巴纳。
[57:26] 它确实包含了一些来自马可·波罗的迹象，表明中国海岸附近有岛屿。
[57:39] 这说明大陆是如何以非常基本的方式绘制的，而北美最终也是以同样的方式绘制的。

五大湖测绘与地图学借用

[57:50] 大陆内部，以五大湖为例，可能以不同于地中海环线方法的方式绘制。
[58:03] 通过绕每个湖一圈并将测量结果串联起来绘制五大湖将是一项艰巨的任务。
[58:28] 数百年来，这些湖泊上唯一的人是乘坐桦树皮独木舟的航行者，因此环线方法没有发生。
[58:35] 结果是相当粗糙的五大湖地图；展示的一幅是首次显示所有五个五大湖的地图。
[58:42] 在麦基诺海峡附近，他们知道有一个大湖展开，但不知道它有多大或在哪里结束。
[59:20] 地图学中不存在良好的线性进展；早期地图显示出摸索和编造。
[59:44] 地图制作者总是大量借用其他地图制作者的作品，大多数地图实际上是由其他地图制作的。
[1:00:03] 直到最近，被要求绘制某个区域的地图制作者首先会找到该区域的另一幅地图作为底图。

五大湖早期地图

[1:00:36] 确定密歇根州南部和北部半岛的形状几乎完成了五大湖地图。
[1:00:51] 密歇根是一个难以绘制的半岛，表明地图学的进展不是线性的。
[1:01:05] 苏必利尔湖的第一幅地图可追溯到 1671 年，由耶稣会士制作并发表在耶稣会关系上，尽管具体制作者未知；阿卢埃兹神父是其中之一，马凯特神父可能也参与其中。
[1:01:22] 那幅 1671 年的地图是一幅非常准确的苏必利尔湖地图，包括罗亚尔岛和几个小岛，因为耶稣会士乘坐独木舟几乎绕湖一周，估计距离并用星盘或象限仪读取纬度。
[1:02:01] 在早期地图上，密歇根湖被扭曲，以不同角度出现，像钟摆一样。
[1:02:20] 法国地图制作者弗兰克·霍兰德似乎有点依赖耶稣会地图，而意大利地图制作者科内利的 1680 年代地图看起来是复制自它，只是做得宽得多。
[1:02:52] 在 17 世纪后期，法国手稿地图在苏必利尔湖上添加了以法国有影响力人物命名的虚构岛屿，这些岛屿被后来的地图所采用。
[1:03:22] 亨内平通常不被认为是一个非常可靠的旅行者或地图制作者，而德利勒是最好的地图制作者之一，显然使用了耶稣会地图来绘制苏必利尔湖。
[1:03:51] Cyprian Southack 船长的 1717 波士顿地图是在美洲出版的第一幅北美地图，但其五大湖部分非常奇怪，来源不明。
[1:04:09] Henry Popple 的地图是 18 世纪北美最佳地图之一，但在苏必利尔湖上，它添加了三到五个以法国官员命名的岛屿来奉承他们。
[1:05:00] Mitchell 地图，也许是 18 世纪最重要的北美地图，在 1783 年被巴黎的委员们用来绘制和平条约，并用红线标出了边界。
[1:05:31] Newberry 的 Mitchell 地图彩色副本显示，根据其殖民特许状，南部殖民地的西部边界延伸至太平洋。

John Cary 的地图与不存在的岛屿

[1:06:32] 焦点转向英国制图师 John Cary 的地图，他从 1805 年开始出版一系列美国区域地图。
[1:06:51] Cary 的地图仍然显示着假岛屿，包括 Isle Royale 和 Isle Philippot。
[1:07:00] Mitchell 地图被用来绘制和平条约的边界线。
[1:07:26] 条约提到了两个不存在的岛屿：Philippot 和 Pontchartrain。
[1:07:44] 大约 70 年来，英国人和美国人一直在争论条约指的是哪些岛屿。
[1:07:54] 直到 1840 年代，才裁定这些岛屿不存在。
[1:08:02] Cary 的 1805 年地图仍然显示边界穿过那个不存在的岛屿。
[1:08:12] Cary 的 1805 年地图本来可以很好地使用，但俄亥俄在 1805 年成为州，所以后来的版本不得不加上俄亥俄。
[1:08:34] 到 1825 年，俄亥俄、印第安纳和伊利诺伊都已建州，不得不在没有更好地理信息的情况下将它们纳入。
[1:08:56] 在 1825 年的地图上，伊利诺伊州是内陆的，没有湖泊，芝加哥的迪尔伯恩堡被标在威斯康星州。
[1:09:38] Cary 对苏必利尔湖西端（约西经 92 度）和安大略湖东端的经度是准确的。
[1:09:53] 宾夕法尼亚州的西部边界是准确的，因为梅森-迪克森线是在地面上测量的。

土地测量与西北领地网格

[1:10:46] 与早期的例子不同，这个问题是通过在陆地上拖动测链并用罗盘定向来解决的。
[1:11:10] 西北领地决定完全划分为地块，而不是使用边界和地标系统。
[1:11:30] 他们设计了一个公共土地系统，由六英里见方的乡镇组成，每个乡镇划分为 36 个平方英里的地段。
[1:11:42] 这首先在 1787 年于俄亥俄东部的七区进行，很大程度上是一次实验。
[1:12:02] 俄亥俄的土地测量方向略有不同，并不完全吻合，起初没有标准子午线。
[1:12:15] 到他们到达印第安纳时，开始建立标准子午线来编号区域和乡镇。
[1:12:30] 印第安纳和伊利诺伊分别在 1816 年和 1818 年成为州，但它们的北部人口稀少，缺乏乡镇和区域测量。
[1:13:00] 在伊利诺伊，大约 1830 年，进行了一次测量延伸，以修建从芝加哥到伊利诺伊河的伊利诺伊-密歇根运河。
[1:13:25] 只有当测量到达 1830 附近地区时，才能相当确定和准确地定位密歇根湖的西岸。
[1:14:03] 从用测链和罗盘测量的梅森-迪克森线开始，一般土地办公室的测量向西、向北以及东西方向扩展。

从陆地测绘五大湖

[1:14:25] 五大湖的轮廓被确定下来，这部分地理完全是基于陆地测绘的。
[1:14:37] 演讲者已经结束，并提出回答问题，尽管只是尽力而为。

[0:00] 。我要感谢 Jeff 和 McClung 博物馆全体 staff，感谢他们邀请我来这里，并在我待的这几天里做了如此出色的主人。你们中有多少人实际看过地图展览？能举手吗？相当多。好的。那么，我敦促那些还没看过的人去看看。这是一个非常精美的收藏，汇集了非常重要的地图在这个地方。一些伟大的北美和世界地图，以及一些非常有趣的田纳西和你们地区的地图。

[0:40] 一定要去看看，希望我今天要讲的一些内容能帮助你们更好地欣赏它。我今天的主题“他们是怎么做到的？”来自我认为人们看地图时问的一个非常基本的问题。我们都有过这样的经历：站在田野或海岸上，向外看，然后想，现在，你如何测绘我所站的位置，那怎么可能？还有...

[1:11] 事实是，如果我们站在像这样的平坦表面上向外看，我们可以看到大约三英里。也就是说，如果你身高六英尺。对我来说更像是两又四分之三英里。但这并不是一个足够宽的范围，让你看到很多地形细节。如果我们爬到大约 500 英尺，我们将视野扩大到大约 27 英里。

[1:43] 这已经足够远，能够让你选择海湾之类的地方。如果我们爬到 10,000 英尺高的山顶，比如这是棕榈泉外的圣哈辛托山，你的视野延伸到大约 125 英里。在晴朗的日子里，如果你知道怎么做，这足以生成周围地区的相当好的草图。我不能说我会。如果我们在 30,000 英尺高的飞机上，我们可以看到大约 212 英里。

[2:20] 在那里，你才真正开始能够辨认出相当多的地形细节。你们中许多喜欢在飞行时坐靠窗座位的人，有时会觉得它就像一张地图从你下方掠过。好吧，如果我们升得更高，这是从哥伦比亚号航天飞机上拍摄的非洲之角，拍摄于1993年，高度为163英里，我们正朝北看。

[2:51] 那就是非洲之角。这个小小的突出物，我不记得它的名字了，但它实际上是非洲大陆的最东端。从163英里的高度，你能看到大约1,200英里远。所以当我们看到这里的地平线时，我们正望向阿拉伯半岛的中部。在那里你开始看到一块真正可辨认的地理区域。事实上，这里有一张来自纽伯里收藏的地图，出自大约1565年的一本葡萄牙地图集。

[3:23] 展示了那个区域。你看，我们有非洲之角。那里有个小小的突出点，还有阿拉伯半岛。我想那应该是——我正要说那是麦加，但我想不是。呃，犹大。犹大。那大概是犹大。如果我们把地图的这一部分覆盖到我们的航空照片上，我们就会看到那种一致性，我不知道，我觉得这相当惊人。这里你有那个角。那里有这个小小的突出物。

[4:02] 这是索科特拉岛，属于也门。它实际上在这里，但我不知道。我觉得这相当不错，这让我问一个问题：他们是怎么做到的？这是著名的蓝色弹珠照片，拍摄于1972年阿波罗17号任务，他们当时在28,000英里的高度。所以在这里，当然，你可以看到整个地球。在这张特别的照片中，那是该任务更著名的照片之一，你实际上可以看到整个非洲大陆，除了被云层遮挡的一小部分。

[4:47] 这是一张由名叫福尔拉尼的人绘制的意大利地图，大约在15年，65。我想你会认出它显示的是什么。事实上，如果我们……把它叠加到那张航空照片上。你会看到它相当吻合。吻合到我们可能会问，他们是怎么做到的？这是一张地图，你们有多少人认得这个？我想让你的头转向这边。这是从东边看的新英格兰。

[5:24] 我们正朝西看。这里是科德角。这实际上是新罕布什尔州的温尼珀索基湖。这里是罗德岛。我想这是康涅狄格河。这实际上是美国出版的第一张地图，1677年，收录在约翰·哈伯德的书中。新英格兰史。我们要把它放在一张现代卫星照片旁边，我想你必须同意这相当了不起。我的意思是，如果你开始看细节，好吧，楠塔基特不是玛莎葡萄园岛，楠塔基特的位置也不太对，罗德岛实际上更靠外，但总的来说，还不错。

[6:10] 你想知道他们是怎么做到的。我想举一个本地的小例子。呃——史密斯将军的田纳西政府地图，我想是1825年，当然，你可以看到诺克斯维尔。这是现代卫星图像。当然，我不想声称这是一张极其精确的地图，但它确实显示——诺克斯维尔在那里——它确实明确显示了它在这两条东北-西南走向的河流之间的位置，而且你确实看到了东北-西南走向的山脉线。

[6:51] 所以——他们是怎么做到的？好吧……首先，我想回到远古时代，呃……回答一个很多人——我不知道，我成长过程中学到的是，在哥伦布时代，每个人都认为世界是平的，你知道，这类事情。事实是——任何有点学术抱负甚至任何实际航海经验的人都很清楚，世界不是平的。

[7:23] 但当你站在世界上，站在海滩上时，这是很难意识到的。这是来自一本宇宙学著作的一小段。15:24 试图向人们解释，给他们一个关于世界球形的证明。他实际上在这里说的是，这是月亮。这是地球，这是太阳。如果地球是一个——什么，四面体之类的。太阳投射在月亮上的影子就会是这个形状。

[7:56] 如果地球是金字塔形的，影子就会是这个形状。如果地球是立方体，你会得到那样的影子。但事实上，地球是圆的，所以你会得到那样的影子。所以，并不是说每个人都知道地球是圆的，但这是众所周知的。事实上，早在公元前200年，一个名叫埃拉托色尼的人就能够实际测量——我得出了一个相当不错的地球实际周长估计。这就是他的方法。

[8:34] 这是埃及。他明白，他知道在赛伊尼，一个实际上非常靠近阿斯旺大坝的地方，有一口井。而且在一年的某一天，据说太阳正好在那口井的正上方。你知道这一点，因为如果你往沙漠中这口很深的井里看，你能看到太阳的倒影。所以他做了一个实验。呃……身体他住在——埃拉托色尼住在亚历山大港。

[9:07] 他做了一个实验，在那口井据说以那种方式被照亮的那一天，他测量了亚历山大港一根垂直杆子投下的影子的角度。通过一些相当初等的数学，他假设，事实上，它们或多或少在一条南北线上，而事实上，它们确实或多或少在一条南北线上。所以他做了这个实验。这是他所做实验的侧视图。这是那口井——实际上，这是以英里为刻度的。大约480英里。

[9:46] 而在亚历山大港这里，当太阳——当然，太阳的光线是完全平行的，因为太阳离得那么远，相比之下地球又那么小。所以当太阳的光线穿透到赛伊尼那口井的底部时，它们在亚历山大港投下了这么大的影子。而它的几何原理相当简单。嗯。谢谢。如果你测量影子投出的角度，它和这里的这个角度是一样的。

[10:16] 地球的这个扇区。他计算出那是——七点五。7.2 度，或者说一个圆的 50 分之一。所以如果你取……呃，他估算的距离是 5,000 斯塔德。如果你取 5,000 斯塔德乘以 50，你会得到——呃——你会得到一个换算成英里大约是 24,860 或 24,000 英里的数字。

[10:50] 而实际数字是 24,860。所以他差了 9%，但我认为考虑到他可用的仪器，这是个相当合理的计算。我们现在要快速转向第一位真正……重要且在许多方面最有影响力的制图学家，那就是克劳狄乌斯·托勒密。他生活在公元二世纪，大约在 125 年左右工作。

[11:21] 当然，我们并不真正知道他长什么样，但这是一幅 16 世纪的想象肖像。托勒密是个博学家。他写了关于天文学、音乐、数学的论著。实际上他最出名的可能是作为天文学家。他写的论著之一叫做《地理学》，关于地理，他指的是绘制世界地图，地理学，书写世界。

[11:53] 他构想——当然，他知道世界、地球是圆的，而且它是个球体——他构想并且这是希腊人的普遍观点——人们居住的区域，即 oikoumine，是一个球体的四分之一。他们假设——他们知道一点关于这里下面的情况。嗯，实际上他们并不知道，因为这里是非洲的顶部。他们真的对此了解不多，但他们假设在这个球体上必须有另外四块陆地来平衡它。

[12:30] 谢谢。所以他提出了——他发明的东西之一是这种投影。这被称为托勒密第一投影。它是一种圆柱投影，显示了从——他的西端，即幸运群岛，起 180 度。人们不确定，有些人认为是加那利群岛和马德拉群岛。有些人认为是佛得角。但不管是什么，它是托勒密和其他希腊地理学家所知的在大西洋中最远的东西。而且——他绘制了 180 度，换句话说，绕地球半圈。

[13:06] 南北范围是从 60 度稍北一点。二李的纬线，到——与麦罗埃相对的纬线。麦罗埃是北苏丹的一个城镇。或者曾是北苏丹的一个城镇，大约在赤道以南 15 度。那里是，那里是赤道。不，抱歉，那里是回归线。我们这里都在赤道以北。谢谢。所以他的第二投影更有趣一些。

[13:40] 显示出更多一点球体形状。这是托勒密的第二投影。而且……这是他提出的世界地图。嗯，它在这里显示了 180 度，幸运群岛在这里，不管它们是什么。你会注意到非洲在这里相当未知。我们所知道的只是这一部分。而且假设是印度洋是一个封闭的海。顺便给你一点方位感，当然 orient 这个词来自许多古老地图以东方朝上的事实，因此有 orient 一词。

[14:20] 但为了让你稍微了解情况，这个形状怪异的东西是印度次大陆。而这是斯里兰卡岛。这么久。这可能是马来半岛。谢谢。所以他提出了一幅世界地图以及 26 幅区域地图。他制作了一幅嗯。他制作了 10 幅欧洲地图、4 幅非洲地图和 12 幅亚洲地图。

[14:53] 现在，他是如何放置这些东西的？他实际上谈到了如何制作地图。他说的第一件事是，嗯，因为地球，你真的应该从一个大的球开始。但那有点困难。对我们今天来说，从一个大的空白球开始也会很难。所以然后他说次好的办法是从一个球的切片开始。所以你有一个像那样的大曲面。然后你可以在上面制作地图。但他说那也很难。所以我们就用平面纸来工作吧。于是他提出了这两种投影，并着手在上面绘制。

[15:26] 谢谢。他所知道的世界上的所有地方。当时可用的主要工具之一是一个象限仪。看起来大致像这样，一个你可以从这边瞄准的装置，一个小重锤垂下来。如果你瞄准，比如说，北极星，它就会直接读出你的纬度。纬度相对容易。在古代世界，一些天文学家有非常巨大的……

[16:00] 这些装置的模型，非常大的操作象限仪。他们可能能相当准确地读出纬度。他确定一个地方南北距离的另一种方法是了解赤道处最长白天和黑夜长度之间的差异。它是相等的。白天和黑夜一样长。呃……是的，在一年中的某些时候。

[16:33] 但当你向北走时，这里是米罗日，苏丹北部的那个地方。最长日和最短日之间有一小时的差异。在蔡英文，埃及南部的一个地方。有一个——两个小时的差异。在亚历山大，大约是3和1/2。当你到达这里的最北端，比如丹麦，大约是九小时或更多。所以这就是他从在英格兰、德国、西班牙和法国活动的罗马军团那里收集到的信息，各个地方的最长日有多长。

[17:14] 所以这就是他如何如何……如何设定他的纬度。所以在这里，这就是他如何绘制纬度。他知道亚历山大……位于北纬31度。他相当准确地知道这一点。他计算出它在幸运群岛以东大约60度30分。现在，他怎么会知道这个？当然，他谈到了一种方法，经度就是时间。一小时的时间是15分钟的经度。

[17:47] 而我们所学到的，我们现在知道，理解经度的最准确方法是能够将准确的时钟从一个地方带到另一个地方。当然，这花了数千年才最终确定。直到1780年代约翰·哈里森，他们才真正有了足够准确的计时器来以这种方式携带时间。但即使在托勒密时代，他也意识到其他解决方案。他说如果你有关于日食时间的准确信息。

[18:18] 如果你知道……在大马士革这里观测到的日食发生在午夜，而它在亚历山大或我不知道在加的斯之类的地方在凌晨1:30被观测到，那么你就可以利用它作为一个时间瞬间并计算距离。所以，你——他有一些这样的信息。有一点点关于日食的信息。但关于地方之间的距离已经收集了大量信息。

[18:50] 当然，罗马人在他们的帝国到处游荡。他们在不列颠非常活跃。在托勒密时代之前不久。所以像伦敦这样的地方被确定下来。托勒密的大多数经度很可能实际上是……呃……从距离测量中拼凑起来的。所以从这里亚历山大，他会——当然，他可以使用亚历山大图书馆。

[19:24] 那里充满了信息，并且 presumably 可以访问各种罗马记录和行程表之类的东西。几乎所有这些现在对我们来说都丢失了。但他知道，例如，如果你从亚历山大到阿尔及尔或突尼斯，距离是那么远。他们估计是那么多罗马里。他实际上有一个系统，如果他有两地之间的行程距离，他当然知道它们很远。任何道路都会有点弯曲，他允许五分之一的误差。所以他说如果他有距离，有500——或者500罗马里，比如说从亚历山大到突尼斯，他说，好吧，我要把它算作400。

[20:12] 然后他会确定突尼斯的经度。或者伦敦，或者其他某个城市。所以以一种非常……非常缓慢而艰苦的方式。我实际上想，我想象托勒密在一张巨大的地图上工作。也许在墙上，或者更方便地像这样的地板上。画出了他的投影，说，好吧，这里是亚历山大。我知道大马士革有这么远，并且在这个纬度上，那么我要说它在这里。

[20:49] 逐渐来回移动，把东西移来移去，他得出了他的世界地图，你之前看到了。嗯，只是顺便说一下关于发现美洲的事情。托勒密，这是一个1492年制作的地球仪。由一位在葡萄牙工作的德国人马丁·贝海姆制作。现在，没有证据表明哥伦布见过这个地球仪，尽管如果有一个地球仪，可能还有更多。我的意思是，我确定它不是独一无二的物品。所以这完全有可能你见过这个地球仪或类似的东西，你知道，至少。

[21:24] 这是一个明显存在的概念。基本上这个地球仪所做的是把托勒密的世界包裹在一个地球仪上。但碰巧的是，因为托勒密实际上没有接受埃拉托色尼对地球大小的测量。我不记得原因是什么，但他假设了一个稍小的地球。他实际上最终夸大了有人居住世界的经度长度。所以当你把托勒密稍微太大的世界包裹在一个稍微太小的地球上时，你会得到我们称之为太平洋视图的样子。这是贝海姆地球仪的投影，呃……欧洲在这里，这里是中国。

[22:17] 这些中国附近的岛屿，也许可能是菲律宾或类似的想法。这里是西潘古，也就是日本。这些都是来自马可·波罗的信息。但你可以看到，我喜欢这个例子，因为它确切地展示了哥伦布从西班牙航行时认为自己在做什么。他的想法是向西航行直到——这些是加那利群岛和大西洋中的其他岛屿。是航行经过所有这些岛屿，直到他到达中国海岸外的其他岛屿。

[22:53] 确实，当他到达伊斯帕尼奥拉和其他地方时，他认为那些是这些岛屿中的一些。我相信故事是哥伦布实际上直到去世都认为他确实发现了这些——这些东印度群岛。谢谢。所以，嗯……谢谢。我想更详细地向你们展示托勒密是如何进行制图，制作他的一张详细地图的。托勒密的第一张欧洲地图是不列颠群岛。有趣的是，他对这些区域地图的安排，从英国群岛开始，第二张地图是伊比利亚半岛。

[23:36]这一传统变得非常根深蒂固，以至于当第一部现代地图集于1570年问世时，亚伯拉罕·奥特柳斯，他有一幅世界地图。然后他的第一幅……区域地图，是不列颠群岛。第二幅区域地图，是伊比利亚。事实上，直到20世纪，大多数地图集都遵循这一模式。先是英国。然后是西班牙，再然后是法国，以此类推。这个顺序有点……

[24:12]在那之后就不成立了，但托勒密的影响力就是如此之大。所以这是一张——一张——一张英国的卫星视图。而这是托勒密的英国地图。这——这就是托勒密记录的那类信息。大量的地名。城镇的。若干河流的位置。我们完全不必把这种内陆细节当真，但据推测，河口应该是在……这是他标绘出来的东西。

[24:50]嗯。这里有一些民族的名称。算是笼统的名称。这里就是——我读不清这里的这些名字，但这里是这个部落居住的地方，这里是这些人居住的地方。还有一些自然地貌，比如一些山脉，甚至苏格兰这里有一大片森林。谢谢。那么他是怎么做到的呢？嗯，他先从那个地区的一个投影开始。然后他把自己对伦敦位置的最佳推测——纬度和经度——标了上去。当然，罗马军团遍布英国各地，他们无疑经常——在这些地方之间往来，而他有行程记录，告诉他某些地方有多远。

[25:33]尤其是城镇。塔玛拉，其实我想是康沃尔的一条河。科里尼乌姆先生是——我得看看我的小抄。科里尼乌姆是——西伦塞斯特？嗯……马里杜努姆是威尔士的卡马森。这是肯特的岬角，它显然相当确定，因为那是罗马军队、罗马船只，那会是他们在不列颠的第一个登陆点。所以有一些地方是他确定的。拉蒂尔，是莱斯特。

[26:09]迪瓦是柴郡。林杜姆是林肯。埃博拉库姆是约克。他在他的《地理学》中加了一条注记，说这里是第六军团赢得胜利的地方。所以——有一些地方，他能够相当准确地确定它们相对于彼此的位置。而且从这些——从其中一些固定地点出发。有些人甚至认为罗马人有一种三角测量法，有一种标准的三角形，他们在英格兰测绘和制作地图时以此为基础。而托勒密实际上可能有一幅英格兰地图，是他从军队里某个人那里得到的。这完全不是不可想象的。

[26:57]有一幅草图，他们说：“对，这个西南岬角就是这个样子。”总之，利用他能得到的最好的信息，他在他的大地图上得出了这个轮廓。让我们把它想象在这里的地板上。他还标出了河口。他们说，好吧，这条河在这里。在这个地点以北多少英里。这个点，你知道。于是他把所有这些地方都标在了他的地图上。现在，如果他只是做了这些，并制作了这些精美的地图。

[27:29]那就足够了。如果它们留存下来的话。但当时地图的问题，以及今天仍然存在的问题是，它们极其脆弱。极其容易磨损。你们中任何有车、有手套箱的人都可以证明，事实上，大多数地图如果被使用的话，都是被用到报废的。所以，如果托勒密在羊皮纸或纸莎草纸之类的东西上制作了一幅大型世界地图。而且如果他制作了一套26幅区域地图，也许它们会留存下来。也许会有人制作副本。

[28:08]它们会历经千年留存下来。但是——而且他无疑制作过这样的地图。我是说，至少他制作过一幅大地图，这我们知道。但托勒密的《地理学》得以留存的原因，是因为他把它数字化了。他取了所有这些，他从这些城镇的纬度和经度开始，然后他开始标绘——从他那本作为底图的书里读出来，比如说地板上的那幅，他开始读出其他坐标。所以，如果你们跟着我在这里周围放置的这些点，他会说，好，在这个凸起处的这个速度点。

[28:47]是53度30分。呃……纬度，经度大约是22度10分。然后他会把它写下来。他会对河口、对岬角、对岛上所有这些不同的地貌这样做。嗯。几十个，也许多达两百个点，用于不列颠群岛。他把这些记录在——谢谢。

[29:21]表格形式。像这样。这恰好是托勒密《地理学》的一份拉丁文手稿。他原本会用希腊文书写，而且有一些现存的希腊文手稿。但基本上，我们所知道的、历经各个时代流传下来的托勒密的《地理学》，不包含任何地图，而是——一本关于如何进行投影的教科书，一份关于如何制图的一般性描述，以及一份像这样的8,000个坐标的列表。

[29:53]这里是一个地点。这里是纬度。以及分数和经度以及分数。而实际上，他标示的方式。呃，度，我是说分，嗯，他其实并没有真正涉及秒，但他标示分的方式是，如果它是，我们会称之为50度30分，他会说，50度半。如果是50度45分，他会说50度半又四分之一。呃，他们没有统一分数的概念。

[30:27]所以……历经各个时代流传下来的《地理学》只包含呃……数据，只是数字、字母数字数据。如果你愿意的话，可以说是数字数据。而它并不是，似乎，有一些证据表明阿拉伯人能够接触到托勒密的《地理学》，但它对西方文化来说基本上失传了，直到1200年代晚期，抱歉，是1300年代晚期，当时在君士坦丁堡发现了一份抄本。

[31:03] 一位希腊手稿和君士坦丁堡的一位地理学家说，这里有一个如何制作世界地图的方向。他接着绘制了这八幅图，我们不知道他是画了一张大地图还是制作了区域地图，但他遵循了托勒密的指示。他标出了所有这些8,000地点，并制作了这本图集。嗯，那是一件革命性的事情。那本图集很快被翻译成拉丁文，并且制作了许多许多副本。

[31:35] 它成为了……它成为了世界上第一部标准地图集。这大约在1400年。而且它——在许多方面，它至少在100年里一直是世界标准地图集。托勒密的地理志是最早出版的书籍之一。第一版带有地图的是1477年。一本非常早期的插图书籍。整个16世纪有多个版本。直到大约1570年，奥特柳斯出版了他的《世界概貌》，被认为是第一部现代地图集。但在那之前，至少直到1520年代，托勒密公元125年的地图，基本上就是全部了。

[32:23] 用于理解世界地理。谢谢。当然，当新发现发生时，他们不得不随机应变，有几幅地图——我特别想到展览中的一幅地图，你看到的基本上是一个托勒密式的世界，上面附加了一些美洲的东西。但回到——回到他的不列颠地图。你们许多人可能想知道为什么苏格兰像那样弯曲。嗯……我实际上没有在任何地方读到有人明确说过这一点，但我很确信这就是发生的情况。如果你把苏格兰的那一块像这样竖起来，90度。

[33:06] 你会发现它实际上——对苏格兰的描绘还不错。我的意思是，你得到了基本的……这里的半岛，这个马里湾。你得到了这里的这个半岛。西侧这些类似小峡湾的东西。这——对于……公元125年来说还不错，由一个从未离开亚历山大港、在几千英里外的人绘制。可能是根据口头……描述绘制的。

[33:40] 但他不得不弯曲它的原因是因为图勒岛。你还记得那个带状图吗？它显示了最北的可居住地是图勒的纬度。嗯，确实，这是来自一幅1539年的地图，显示了这座想象中的岛屿。有些人认为它实际上可能是冰岛，或者可能是北大西洋中某个其他遥远的岛屿。基本上，托勒密的信息可以追溯到皮西亚斯，他说图勒在不列颠以北六天航程处，靠近冰冻的海。当时的想法是，当你向北走到那么远，远远超过北纬60度时，整个海都结冰了，那么显然那里无法居住。

[34:26] 所以——托勒密陷入了困境，因为他有——他从罗马军团那里得到了大量关于不列颠和苏格兰的信息，他清楚地知道当你到这里时，还有大约这么多要走。但他有一个问题，这就是他的图勒。他已经——他已经把图勒标为这个位置。根据皮西亚斯的说法，它必须——它必须在不列颠以北六天航程处。如果他把它放在这边，就是不合。所以他做了很多今天的科学家做的事情。他们试图嗯……

[35:05] 调整，你知道，理解数据以及最合理的方式。对他来说，他试图保留不列颠的长度，同时认识到图勒几乎是居住的北部极限。所以他干脆把它弯曲了。谢谢。这是我的观点，我挑战任何人。如果有人有另一种解释，欢迎他们提出来。所以无论如何，这就是托勒密的世界。同一个世界环绕在博海姆地球仪上，尽管博海姆地球仪还包括马可·波罗的信息，这些信息延伸到了嗯……在这里尝试给出了日本。

[35:44] 谢谢。现在转向地中海。嗯……我们将讨论另一个……伟大的托勒密，托勒密地理学在1400年左右的发现，是地图学史中划时代的事情。在网格上制图、纬度和经度的整个想法，都来自托勒密。但还有另一个传统，它早了几百年开始。

[36:20] 在地中海，那甚至——那是一种平行的传统。那就是波托兰海图的传统。这是已知最早的波托兰海图副本。波托兰海图的一些特征，嗯，它们几乎……都是画在动物皮上，画在羊皮纸上。这是动物的颈部。你能看到这里的轮廓吗？这是我们在看地中海。这里是嗯……

[36:52] 嗯……那个……直布罗陀海峡。这里是北非，这里是意大利，意大利的靴子，这里是东部……东岸，地中海，实际上黑海几乎总是被包含在波托兰海图中。这里的黑海有些被侵蚀了。这幅地图，地图学史上最重要的地图之一，是1840年左右在巴黎的一家旧货店被发现的。

[37:26] 现在收藏在拿骚图书馆。谢谢。这是——所谓的卡泰桑的细节，它向你更详细地展示了一些特征。总是有一个圆圈，一个圆形网格。如果你退后一步，你实际上可以看到嗯。你可以看到这里刻有几个大圆，中间有风向玫瑰，还有辐射的辐射风线或所谓的恒向线，R-H-U-M-V。

[38:04] 波托兰海图上的地名和图表上的地名总是写在内陆方向。他们尽量让水域保持开阔。嗯……通常，罗经线（rum lines）的颜色各不相同。有些是绿色的，有些是红色的，有些海图上则是黑色的。嗯……另一个特点——哦，它们有——它们显示——它们显示了极小的岩石。还有另一个例子，我可以给你们看更多符号。但是——另外一点是，波托兰海图上没有“上方”的概念。就是没有，你不能说：“哦，这应该是朝上的。”那些字母，如果你们看，这些是从那个方向读的，然后在这下面……

[38:45] 谢谢。我看不太清那个。它们仍然是从那个方向读的，但在这边，它们是从这个方向读的。如果你绕着一个岛走，你就得把海图那样转过来。它其实并没有——它其实并没有一个自然的朝向。谢谢。这是另一幅波托兰海图。这是纽伯里收藏的。这是我们最早的一幅波托兰海图，我们有几十幅波托兰海图和地图集。这幅是1456制作的，作者是马略卡岛的罗塞利（Rosselli），他在这里的颈部签了名。

[39:16] 同样，它是——地中海和黑海的轮廓。有些还向上延伸——大多数沿着欧洲西海岸向上延伸，通常包括不列颠群岛。嗯……他们经常把这些地图、这些旗帜放在边框周围。嗯，这些——许多留存下来的波托兰海图，显然这幅比萨海图（Cart-Pizan）已经相当破烂不堪，而且制作时可能也不是特别美观。

[39:51] 一些留存下来的波托兰海图非常完好、精美，可能是为富有的客户制作的，或者供客厅或图书馆使用。但也有一些证据表明它们曾出海使用过，我想这幅就是其中之一。在这边。有这些孔洞。那是它被钉在木制卷轴上的地方。而在颈部的这里有一个小孔。那里原本会穿过一根皮绳。所以你可以把它卷起来，用那根皮绳系住。

[40:22] 把它塞进船上的小格子里。而且它肯定因为被卷起和展开而留下了一些磨损。甚至这些旗帜中有些也有明显的迹象表明墨水——颜料被弄湿过。所以我不知道。我愿意相信这一幅可能真的出过海。好了。那么，它们是如何使用的呢？这是纽伯里的另一幅波托兰海图集。实际上这是一本地图集，这是两页的展开，我不得不在这里把纸张拼接起来，这是数字副本。

[40:56] 但为了向你们展示水手可能如何使用这样一幅波托兰海图，如果你想从非洲北海岸的这个梅利利亚（Melilla），我想是叫这个名字，到这边的这个点，加塔角（Cabo da Gata）。CAP。是的，一个——猫角。他——换句话说，他想沿着大致这样的航线航行。他可以在上面画出他的航线，或者在这两个地方之间放一把平行尺。

[41:27] 这是平行尺的一边，然后他会摆动尺子的另一臂，直到——直到它与一个风向玫瑰图对齐。在这个例子中，正如你们所见，那是北线。北偏东。北东北，实际上是在北偏东和北东北之间。从这里出发的水手会尽量让他的罗盘读数略偏北偏东。希望他能到达他的目标点。

[41:59] 但希望不是。不是字面意义上的，因为事实上，这里有一个——有一个标记表明那里有一块大岩石。我想如果你熟悉现代海图，今天用来表示航行危险（比如岩石）的符号非常类似，像这样的小点表示浅滩。有些波托兰海图甚至画有一个小船骸骨来表示沉船。

[42:35] 所以主要工具是罗盘，就像这个。我们并没有真正古老的罗盘。罗盘是……嗯……过去人们说它是在中国发明的，然后传到地中海。现在人们认为它可能是独立发明的。但无论如何，有文字证据表明，人们在1200世纪初就谈论用罗盘航行、靠磁针航行。所以那大约就是比萨海图出现的时期，大约在1200世纪末的某个时候。

[43:10] 最早的罗盘可能只是一根针，实际上漂浮在水面上，靠表面张力支撑。有时他们会把针穿过一根稻草，这样能让它浮起来，但我确信在很早的时候，他们就已经设计出了这种方法：一张卡片，下面连着针。他们还需要一个沙漏，或者在某些情况下，一个分钟沙漏或半分钟沙漏。从至少中世纪晚期一直到……

[43:46] 18世纪，航海者使用计程仪和绳索来收集关于他们速度的信息。基本上，你需要——你需要——一个绕了很多绳子的线轴。你需要这里的这个计程仪，或者叫测速板。你还需要一个——适用于半分钟的沙漏。它的工作原理大致是这样的。我想你至少需要三个人。一个人拿着计程仪，真的。

[44:18] 另一个人拿着30秒沙漏。还有一个人拿着这里的实际测速板，它的底部有重物。他把这东西从船尾扔出去。它碰到水就开始随波漂浮。当然，水在这里抓住它，所以它……有点在水中上浮。然后他等到……呃——大约一个船长的距离。那里系着一块红布，这表明那东西现在已经在船后足够远，不受船的尾流影响，据说它是在进入更平静的水域。

[44:57] 当那条红线越过时，越过栏杆，他说：“转。”那个拿着30秒沙漏的人转动沙漏，然后他们开始数越过了多少个结。结被放置，嗯……显然结有几种不同的长度，但结是沿着那里以固定间隔放置的。你数越过了多少个结，当沙漏漏完时，那个人说停。然后拿着卷轴的那个人稳住它。他们数已经越过了多少个结。

[45:30] 然后他们把信息记录在这个装置上，这是一个特拉弗斯板。这是一个非常简单的装置，不需要任何高深的学问。一个不识字的船员只要熟悉罗盘方位点，并且能读出数字，我想，从1到12，就能使用它。原理是这样的：这里列出了你可能驾驶的所有罗盘方位点，这些同心圆行中的每一行代表半小时。

[46:05] 所以这会是值班的第一个半小时。第二个半小时，第三个半小时，以此类推，直到四小时值班。这是海上划分一天的一种非常标准的方式。从早期就开始了。在中间系着一根绳子。你有一堆小木钉。配合使用，你可以把它们沿着绳子推到孔里。所以这告诉我们，在值班的第一个半小时里，他们正朝北偏西航行。

[46:40] 在那个航向上。在值班的第二个半小时里，他们仍然朝北偏西航行。但当第三个半小时到来时，他们已经将航向改为——这个罗盘方位点。在第四个半小时——航行两小时后，他们已经将航向改为这个方位点。所以你会一直这样做，在四小时的值班中，你就能得到你所驾驶航向的完美记录。那么，你走得多快呢？嗯，每小时他们都会用计程仪做这件事。

[47:14] 拖板计程仪。他们会把这些标绘在下面这里。这些线中的每一条代表值班的一小时。第一小时。第二小时。第三小时。第四小时。这告诉我们，在值班的第一小时里，他们以六节的速度航行。所以他们把小木钉放在那里。在值班的第二小时里，我一直在指来指去，我做了这个精心制作的幻灯片来向你们展示这个。我忘了。嗯……所以第一小时，6节。第二小时，8节，但比8节多一点。

[47:54] 八点五节。他们可以记录到四分之一节的精度。所以这是对你速度的一个相当准确的估计。因此，在四小时值班结束时，船员可以把这块板交给船长和/或任何负责记录的人。他们就会得到那次值班的完整距离、方向和速度记录，可以写进航海日志。嗯……那么，波特兰——我看到杰夫在看他的表。是的，好的，那个钟是准的。我做得不错。

[48:31] 这些信息是如何被记录下来的？最终，很多很多关于距离港口等信息，都以这种行程表的形式被记录下来。严格来说——好吧，我会说，我会再次称它为数字记录。我的意思是，它当然使用了数字。这里有罗马数字，还有字母数字字符来记录某些信息。这就是他们记录的那种信息。这些被称为Portolani。

[49:07] 港口之间的航行指南书籍。这是最著名的Portolani图。是《航海指南》（Compasso de Navigare），同样来自1200世纪晚期。这里只是其中一个指示，从Fennaro这个港口到Felia。向西北30英里。然后有时会有关于那个地方的注释，但就是这样一条接一条地绕着整个地中海和黑海的航线。

[49:44] 这就是《航海指南》里的内容。现在，人们长期以来一直想象这些portolani，这些指南书籍，与完成的portolan海图之间一定存在某种联系。但直到——几十年前，有一位退休医生。乔纳森·兰德曼，实际上费心把《航海指南》中的所有测量值、所有信息转换成距离、标准距离和方向。当他读到西北时，他把它转换成多少度。当他读到西北偏北时，他把它转换成多少度。然后他标绘出距离和那些方位，开始看看会发生什么。

[50:38] 事实上，他发现——《航海指南》，如果你标绘出所有这些距离和方向，它实际上……我不是故意要那样做的。我该怎么办？就这样做。它实际上确实生成了一幅地中海地图。当然，它并没有……完全像这样呈现出来。你们中任何了解测量的人都知道，当你围绕一个区域测量时，会有一种叫做闭合误差的东西。

[51:17] 它不会完美地像那样结束。其中一些可能在这里很下面什么的。但只要你处理的是一个封闭区域——这里在直布罗陀海峡几乎是封闭的——你知道如何调整它。所以你只需在每个角度上稍微调整一点，使它像这样吻合。那么，它有多接近呢？嗯……相当接近。这是地中海的现代轮廓。所以，我们相当确定这就是基本的portolan海图是如何从这些表格，或者说从这些距离和方向的口头列表中生成的。

[51:58] 当然，这并非一下子就这样发生了。并不是说突然出现了这个 Compasso della Navagari，有人拿它来绘制，然后一下子就得到了波特兰海图。我的意思是，这一定是一个漫长的过程，涉及许许多多的错误和失误，许多局部地图，我想，是关于不同区域的。但我觉得很清楚，那就是——那就是——来源臂。现在我要稍微谈一谈更大陆性的方法。

[52:33] 我们发现，地中海基本上是通过非常精确、非常小尺度的呃——沿周长的距离和方向测量绘制出来的。嗯——当我们来到一个大陆时，使用许多相同仪器的非常相似的事情正在更大的尺度上发生。这是一张非洲这部分地区的早期地图。现在我们要看看——看看葡萄牙人绘制非洲西海岸的一些早期努力。现在，除了我们看到的象限仪之外，还会涉及另一种仪器，托勒密拿着一个象限仪，有一种叫做十字测天仪的仪器，工作原理相同。你瞄准一个物体，然后将这个仪器的这根杆与地平线对齐。

[53:25] 然后将杆的顶部与你正在瞄准的任何物体（北极星或太阳）对齐，然后从这个滑动杆上读取角度。嗯。这里展览中有一个模型。这个展览中有许多奇妙的仪器，其中一些我从未见过，非常 neat。展览的补充。那里有一个背测仪，原理与这个十字测天仪相同，但不必直接看太阳。你背对太阳，这上面有一个小镜子，或者一个小缝隙，你可以读取阴影。

[54:01] 太阳的阴影而不是直接看。达到同样的效果。所以使用测程板和绳索，以及像象限仪或十字测天仪这样的仪器来测量纬度，嗯……葡萄牙人逐渐开始绘制非洲地图。现在这是1489地图的一部分，我裁掉了其他所有东西，除了托勒密知道的内容。这基本上就是托勒密所知道的非洲。

[54:32] 它包括西北部、这里的北海岸、地中海的北岸。你知道阿特拉斯山脉。他知道尼罗河，他们知道，或者……以为知道尼罗河发源于月亮山脉，在非洲南部的某个地方。他们还——知道或以为知道这里有一些大湖，我毫不怀疑那是维多利亚湖和尼亚萨湖，你知道，或者随便什么。

[55:03] 就像我们的——只是，你知道，传言说尼罗河尽头那边有大湖。所以那就是托勒密的非洲。好吧——到葡萄牙人真正开始做出专门努力，试图看看他们是否能绕过非洲，如果它实际上……如果它实际上没有包围印度洋。他们开始沿着西海岸航行，这是……

[55:37] 这是一个非常漫长的过程。1432，另一个。几年后，他们又前进了一点，到达黄金河。嗯……现在是——10年后。我们到了这里。很久以后，葡萄牙人花了——大约50年。才真正把非洲的凸出部分确定下来。

[56:11] 但是，所以他们会用完全相同的方式做到这一点，通过在这些不同的河口之类的地方获取纬度读数，然后通过记录他们的距离和方向。最后，为了看看他们是否能绕过大陆而做出的巨大努力，在1485，不，1480七八年，巴尔托洛梅乌·迪亚士实际上绕过了好望角。

[56:44] 希望，并到达了大鱼河，在那里他可以看到海岸线向北延伸。所以这就是迪亚士在1488年的探险之后所知道的非洲，事实上这张地图是一张世界地图。由一位名叫 Henricus Martellus 的德国人在1489年制作。这是大英图书馆的一份手稿。还有另一份 Martellus 地图的副本，地理内容非常相似，在耶鲁大学。

[57:16] 当然，你可以看到这仍然是托勒密被截断的南亚和他非常大的锡兰，Caprobana。但是——但这里确实有一些迹象表明，来自马可·波罗的说法，中国海岸外有这些岛屿。所以那就是……这就是大陆以非常基本的方式被绘制出来的方式，这也是北美最终被绘制出来的方式。现在，我想以一个案例研究来结束，关于——大陆内部可能如何被绘制。

[57:53] 或者在这个案例中它是如何被绘制的。这些是五大湖。当然。我想你可以看到，试图通过来到这里，绕湖一圈，然后测量这里的距离，再绕这个湖一圈，绕那个湖一圈，把所有这些串起来，就像我们对地中海所做的那样，那将是一项艰巨的任务。事实上，这并没有发生，因为几百年来，在这些湖上的唯一的人是乘坐桦树皮独木舟的航行者。

[58:34] 所以——你最终得到了相当粗糙的五大湖地图。这实际上是第一张显示所有五个大湖的地图。你可以看到苏必利尔湖，他们显然在麦基诺海峡附近，他们知道那里有一个大湖展开，但他们不知道有多大或在哪里结束。这大概是——密歇根湖，尽管 Lac de Pouin，绿湾的名字通常是 Bay de Pouin，所以那将是密歇根湖、休伦湖、安大略湖和伊利湖。

[59:09] 但我要给你们展示一系列试图描绘五大湖的地图，以此说明：制图学中并不存在那种……嗯……漂亮的线性进步。我们倾向于认为，总的来说，你知道，每一张地图都是对上一张地图的改进，而且，你知道，我想在某些情况下确实如此。但如果你看许多早期地图，你会发现大量的、大量的磕磕绊绊，大量纯粹是——我不知道——凭空捏造的东西。

[59:44] 制图师们一直在大肆借用其他制图师的东西。我是说，直到——直到非常晚近的时候，当我们能真正去谷歌地球或谷歌NASA获取，或者去数字图像实验室获取今天的——地球表面照片时，直到非常晚近的时候，当一位制图师被要求绘制某某地区的地图时，他做的第一件事就是找到那个地区的另一张地图，把它当作底图，也许加以改编，或者改变比例尺之类的。

[1:00:14] 大多数地图实际上是由其他地图制成的。而且——在那个时期，两个人互相抄袭。所以当我们浏览这些不同的五大湖图像时，你会看到一些看起来相同的东西，你会说：“哦，那看起来像是他从某某人那里抄来的。”我一直感兴趣的一件事是，说到五大湖，如果你能确定密歇根的形状，包括它的南半岛和北半岛，你就几乎完成了一幅五大湖地图。

[1:00:46] 如果你在这系列幻灯片中观察密歇根，我想你会看到，那是一个非常难以绘制的小半岛。令人惊讶的是，这是一个很好的例子，说明制图学中的……进步并不是线性的。这恰好是一幅非常早期的——事实上，是第一幅苏必利尔湖之类的地图。1671。我们知道它是耶稣会士绘制的。它发表在《耶稣会关系》中。我们并不真正知道是谁画的。阿卢埃兹神父是其中之一。马凯特神父可能实际上也参与其中。他当时就在这里的使徒群岛传教站。

[1:01:22] 但它实际上是一幅非常准确的苏必利尔湖地图。这里画有罗亚尔岛。它还画了几个实际存在的小岛。他们之所以能做到这一点，是因为我们知道耶稣会士实际上乘独木舟几乎完整地绕湖走了一圈。是的。也许还数着划桨的次数，我不知道，但以某种方式估算距离，并读取纬度。

[1:01:55] 用星盘或象限仪。嗯……这里，密歇根又有点变形了。看密歇根湖。在许多这些早期地图上，实际上有些地图上它摆动的幅度要小得多。有些地图上它几乎笔直上下，还有些地图上它远远偏到这个角度。密歇根就像个钟摆。嗯……弗朗克·霍兰德，一位非常有影响力的法国制图师。他似乎在一定程度上依赖了耶稣会地图，我认为。反正他知道那张地图。

[1:02:28] 嗯……科尔内利，意大利制图师，1680年代。先生。这看起来像是从耶稣会地图抄来的，只是不知为何他认为必须把它画得宽得多。再见。谢谢。嗯。这里有些相当离奇的数字。这是从哪里来的。这是往苏必利尔湖里添加岛屿的开端。在17世纪晚期，有几幅法国手绘地图突然凭空添上想象的岛屿，并以法国有影响力的人物命名。而那些岛屿又被后来的地图沿用。被抄袭的总是那些糟糕的东西。

[1:03:13] 首先。所以——嗯……这些描绘，我不知道它们从何而来。亨内平通常不被认为是很可靠的旅行者或制图师。德利尔是最好的地图制作者之一。而实际上，它对五大湖的描绘还不错。他在这里显然使用了耶稣会地图来画苏必利尔湖。而密歇根湖的方位实际上相当合理。呃……赫尔曼·莫尔，一位比较有想象力的制图师。

[1:03:51] 赛普里安·索萨克船长，第一幅在美洲出版的有关北美洲的地图。1717年在波士顿出版，但他的五大湖是从哪里来的，我不知道。非常奇怪。我认为那没有范本。嗯。波普尔，亨利·波普尔地图的一部分，展示墨西哥湾的南部图幅在展览中。是18世纪最好的北美洲地图之一。

[1:04:22] 我有相当合理的……密歇根和密歇根湖，但注意苏必利尔湖。这里他画了罗亚尔岛，然后这里是菲利波·蓬查特兰岛，我看不太清，但有三四个或五个岛屿被硬塞进去，以奉承法国官员。事实上，每一个都以另一位官员的名字命名。有个岛以你的名字命名是件好事。谢谢。这里又是，密歇根湖，远远偏向西南。

[1:04:55] 密歇根半岛，只是一个小点。这是米切尔地图，18世纪第二幅，也许是北美最重要的地图。美国历史上最重要的地图。很大程度上是因为这就是1783年摆在巴黎专员们面前的那张地图，他们据此绘制了和平条约，并在这张地图上画了一条红线标示边界，将美国与——英国殖民地分隔开来。

[1:05:27] 米切尔的地图很有意思，因为这是——这实际上是纽伯里的副本。复制得很差，但我们的副本是上色的，所以你可以看到，呃……呃……殖民地，至少南部殖民地，根据殖民地特许状，其西部边界被显示为延伸至太平洋。楼上展览中也有一幅很棒的米切尔地图副本。它的上色没有这么夸张。如果你看，北卡罗来纳的特许状本应延伸至太平洋。现在，如果你想知道，如果那真的发生了，西田纳西会在哪里。这就是它划分出来的样子。蒙特雷会在西田纳西，而圣路易斯奥比斯波，那里有不错的葡萄酒产区。

[1:06:22] 本来可以很棒。嗯，那么再看几幅地图。啊……试图展示五大湖。我要重点讲这位名叫约翰·克里的英国制图师绘制的几幅地图。他从18.5年开始出版一系列这样的美国各地区地图。我想如果你看那个大——嗯，它们是可以辨认的，而且他已经去掉了那些假——不，他并没有去掉那些假岛屿。它们还在那里。

[1:06:54] 有罗亚尔，但也有菲利波。事实上，这实际上……嗯……回到了米切尔地图。正如我所说，米切尔地图被用来绘制和平条约。我能回到那里吗？离那儿有多远？嗯。当他们划定边界线时，他们在这里往上画，然后说，好吧，他们画过这个岛，一直到罗亚尔岛。他们从罗亚尔岛南边过去。然后他们从这里的一条河往上游走。在条约里写着，呃……

[1:07:26] 上面写着在菲利波岛和庞恰特雷恩岛以北。以及罗亚尔岛之类的地方。所以他们在实际的条约文件中引用了两个根本不存在的岛屿。于是在接下来的呃70年里。他们一直在寻找，英国人争辩说：“哦，这就是庞恰特雷恩岛。”而美国人说：“不，不，不，是那个岛。”最后，花了很长——直到1840年代，他们才最终裁定，事实上，那些岛屿并不存在。

[1:08:02] 但在这里，1805，它仍然显示边界穿过那个不存在的岛。所以无论如何，这是克里的1805地图。那本来会很好用，直到1805年俄亥俄成为一个州。所以在后来的版本中，他不得不加上俄亥俄。这里，总体地理相当不错。有芝加哥。有陆路转运点。密歇根州圣约瑟夫。底特律。谢谢。谢谢。

[1:08:34] 但当他画到1825时，到那时已经有——俄亥俄已经成为一个州。印第安纳已经成为一个州。伊利诺伊已经成为一个州。而他必须把它们设法塞进去。他没有改变基本地理。他也没有更好的信息。但——你可以看到这给他带来了一些问题，因为比如这里，是密歇根湖的南端。嗯，首先，伊利诺伊是内陆的。它没有湖。这是伊利诺伊。嗯……

[1:09:05] 芝加哥的迪尔伯恩堡在威斯康星，加利福尼亚。什么不是威斯康星。嗯，印第安纳在这里。它就是，很难把它塞进去。原因是，他实际上对——哦，是的。这……表明了他的基本困难。你怎么把三个州像那样塞进密西西比河和宾夕法尼亚西部边界之间的那个空间里。

[1:09:36] 谢谢。谢谢。现在他确切地知道，他实际上，他对苏必利尔湖西端的经度相当准确。实际上大约就是西经92度，这正是他所标示的。他对安大略湖东端的经度也是完全正确。还有宾夕法尼亚的西部边界。那之所以完全正确，是因为梅森-迪克森线。那条线当然是在地面上测量出来的，人们拖着测链，在树上做标记，开辟道路。

[1:10:07] 并在地面上标出到宾夕法尼亚西部边界有多少百英里。所以这三样东西他确定得相当好。但他对密西西比河非常模糊。那里没有任何准确的观测。而这里的这个湖泊系统只是，呃，非常非常——鲜为人知。那是俄亥俄的西部边界。这是印第安纳的西部边界，而这是伊利诺伊在密西西比河上最西端的凸出部分。

[1:10:45] 那么这……这个小问题是如何解决的。嗯，不像我们的其他例子，它不是从水上解决的。它是在陆地上解决的，是由像这样拖着测链的人解决的。他们带着像这样的罗盘穿越全国。总体上——在西北领地，也就是这里的这个地区。决定将其完全划分成地块。当然，你们下面这里的人，你们有测量与边界制度，你只是大致说从这棵树到那块岩石到那条河，然后再回来。

[1:11:24] 但他们决定要为西北领地制定一些更有秩序的东西，于是他们设计了这个……公共土地制度，由六英里见方的乡镇组成，并划分为36平方英里的地块。他们最早是在俄亥俄东部非常早的所谓“七区”中这样做的。那是在1787年完成的。他们其实只是在试验。他们并不太清楚要如何把这个网格扩展到整个西北领地，而俄亥俄确实非常像是一个……

[1:12:00]实验。如果你看看俄亥俄州的土地测量。它们的方向略有不同，而且并不完全吻合。他们当时并没有真正标准的本初子午线。但等到他们进入印第安纳州时，就开始建立一条标准本初子午线了。所以那里会有一条南北向的线，你会在那里给所有的区段和乡镇编号。而印第安纳州和伊利诺伊州都是从南部开始定居的。所以，它们成为了州1816、1818。但在它们获得州地位的时候，这些州的整个北部地区都还是，或者说嗯，它们并非无人居住，但人口稀少。

[1:12:46]没有从乡镇和区段测量中受益。在伊利诺伊州——呃……大约到30年，他们实际上在这里向上测量了一小段延伸区域，因为他们想修建一条从芝加哥向南到伊利诺伊河的运河，即伊利诺伊-密歇根运河。于是他们把那块地划分了。联邦政府开始处置那片土地。与此同时，在它的两侧，仍然是印第安人领地。乡村。因此，随着这些测量推进，他们撞上了水域。

[1:13:21]而真正只有在这次测量大约在1830年推进到这里时。他们才能够相当确定且准确地说明这就是……密歇根湖西岸在该处相接的位置。而随着测量继续进行。威斯康星在'48年成为州。渐渐地，密歇根整个下半岛，当然还有整个密歇根湖，以及密西西比河的位置，它们都被确定下来了。

[1:13:55]通过地面测量来准确确定。简而言之，事情是这样的。从梅森-迪克森线开始，这条线毕竟始于潮水区，并且是用……测链和罗盘测量的，然后延伸至一般土地办公室的测量，向西和向北。以及向东和向西。他们最终……能够确定五大湖的轮廓。这就是这一小块地理区域是如何被绘制出来的，完全依靠陆地测量。

[1:14:35]所以……这就是我要说的全部内容，但如果你们有任何问题，我很乐意回答。我会尽力回答的。是的？谢谢。

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[0:00] . I want to thank Jeff and the McClung Museum generally, the staff, for inviting me down here and being such wonderful hosts for the couple days I've been here. How many of you have actually seen the map exhibit? Can you raise your hands? A fair number. Okay. Well, I urge those of you who haven't seen it yet to go and see it. It's a really fine collection of very important maps to be assembled in this, in this spot. Some great maps of North America and the world and some very interesting maps of Tennessee and your area.

[0:40] by all means go and see it and hopefully a few of the things that I'll talk about today will help you to appreciate it more. My topic today, "How did they do that?" comes from what I think is a very basic question that people ask when they look at maps. We've all had the experience of standing in a field or on a seashore and looking out and thinking, now, how would you go about mapping where I'm standing, how could that happen? and uh...

[1:11] The fact of the matter is if we're standing on a flat surface like this and we look out, we can see something like three miles. That is if you're six feet tall. For me it's more like, two and three quarter miles. But that's not really a wide enough scope to get you get you to see much topographic detail. If we climb up to about 500 feet, we increase our visibility to about 27 miles.

[1:43] which is getting far enough to be able to You pick coves and things like that. If we go up to the top of a 10,000 foot mountain, like this is Mount San Jacinto outside of Palm Springs, your visibility extends to about 125 miles. which is on a clear day enough to be able to generate a fairly good sketch of the surrounding area, if you know how to do that. I can't say that I do. If we're at 30,000 feet in an airplane, we can see something like 212 miles.

[2:20] There you really begin to be able to pick out considerable, topographic detail and Many of you who enjoy window seats on your flights, sometimes think that it's like a map going by underneath you. Well, If we go up even higher, this is the Horn of Africa taken from the shuttle Columbia in 1993. at 163 miles up. and we're looking north.

[2:51] There's the Horn of Africa. This little projecting thing, I don't remember the name of it, but it's actually the eastern most point of the African continent. From 163 miles up, you can see about 1,200 miles. So when we get out to the horizon here, we're looking into the middle of the Arabian Peninsula. And there you begin to see a real recognizable piece of geography. In fact, here's a map from the Newberry collections from a Portuguese atlas of about 1565.

[3:23] showing that very area. You see we have the Horn of Africa. There's that little projecting point and there's the Arabian Peninsula. I think that's supposed to be I was going to say it's Mecca, but I guess not. uh, Judah. Judah. That's probably Judah. And if we were to wrap this part of the map on our aerial photograph. we'd see that kind of congruence, which I don't know, I think is pretty amazing. Here you've got the horn. There's this little projecting thing.

[4:02] Here's the island of Socotro, which belongs to Yemen. It's actually out here, but I don't know. It seems to me it's pretty good and it makes me ask the question, How did they do that? This is the famous blue marble picture taken from Apollo 17. in 1972 and they were at a height of 28,000 miles. So here, of course, you can see the entire globe. And on this particular shot, one of the more famous ones from that mission you can actually see the entire continent of Africa except for a little bit obscured by clouds.

[4:47] This is an Italian map by a man named Forlani from about 15, 65. And I think you'll recognize what it shows. And in fact, if we... layer it over That aerial photograph. you see that it fits fairly well. so well that we might ask, how did they do that? This is a map of, how many of you recognize this? I want to turn your head this way. It's New England looking from the east.

[5:24] We're looking west. Here's Cape Cod. This is actually Lake Winnipesaukee in New Hampshire. Here's Rhode Island. I think this is the Connecticut River. It's actually the first map published in America, 1677 in John Hubbard's book. history of New England. We're going to lay it next to a modern, satellite photo and I think you have to agree it's pretty remarkable I mean if you start looking at details well okay Nantucket isn't Martha's Vineyard and Nantucket aren't quite in the right place and Rhode Island is actually further out there but Generally speaking, it's not bad.

[6:10] You wonder how they did that. And I want to just have a little local example. Uh-- General Smith's map of the Tennessee comfort, government, I think it's 1825, And of course, you can see Knoxville. And here is the modern satellite image. Now of course I don't want to make any claims that this is an incredibly accurate map, but It does show -- there's Knoxville there -- it does definitely show it's position between these two northeast, southwest trending rivers, and you certainly do see the North, East, southwest trending mountain lines.

[6:51] So-- How did they do that? Well... To begin with, I want to go way back to the ancient, times and uh... answer a question that many people, I don't know, when I grew up I learned that at the time of Columbus everybody thought the world was flat and you know, this kind of thing. The fact is that-- Anybody with any scholarly pretensions or even any practical navigation experience knew very well that the world wasn't flat.

[7:23] But it's a hard thing to realize when you're standing on the world, standing on a beach. And this is a little from a cosmography. 15:24 that attempts to explain to people to give them one proof for the rotundity of the world. And what he's, in effect, saying here is here's the moon. Here's the earth and here's the sun. If the Earth were a-- what, a tetrahedron or something like that. the shadow that the sun cast on the moon would be this shape.

[7:56] If the earth were pyramidal, the shadow would be this shape. If the Earth were a cube, you'd get a shadow like that. But in fact, the Earth is round, and so you get a shadow like that. So it's not Certainly not the case that everybody knew the world was round, but it was well known. And in fact, as long ago as 200 BC, a fellow named Eratosthenes, was able to actually measure I've come up with a pretty good estimate of the actual circumference of the Earth. And this is the way he did that.

[8:34] This is Egypt. He understood, he knew that in Syene, a place which is actually very close to the Aswan Dam, There was a well. And on... a certain day of the year, the sun was said to be directly above that well. And you knew that because if you looked down this very deep well, in the desert, you could see the reflection of the sun. So he did an experiment. uh... body He lived-- Ertasanes lived in Alexandria.

[9:07] And he did an experiment in which on the same day that that well was supposed to be illuminated in that way, He measured the angle. of the shadow cast by a pole, a perpendicular pole, in Alexandria. And through some fairly elementary mathematics, he assumed that, in fact, They were more or less on a north-south line, and in fact, they are more or less on a north-south line. And so he did this experiment. Here's a side view of what he did. Here's the well- Actually, this is graduated in miles. It's about 480 miles.

[9:46] And here in Alexandria, when the sun is - the sun's rays, of course, absolutely parallel because the Sun is so far away and the Earth is so small by comparison. So when the sun's rays penetrated to the bottom of the well in Syene, they cast a shadow this big in Alexandria. and The geometry of it is pretty simple. Um. Thank you. If you measure the angle cast by the shadow, it's the same as this angle here.

[10:16] this sector of the Earth. And he calculated that that was-- Seven and a half. 7.2 degrees or a 50th of a circle. So if you take... uh He reckoned the distance as 5,000 stadia. If you take 5,000 stadia and multiply it by 50, you get-- Uh-- you get a figure which translated into miles is about 24,860 or 24,000 miles.

[10:50] And the actual figure is 24,860. So he's off by 9%, but I think pretty reasonable calculation, considering the instrumentation he had available. We're going to move now quickly to the first The first really... important and in many ways the most influential cartographer who ever lived, and that's Claudius Ptolemy. He lived in the second century AD, worked right around 125 AD.

[11:21] Of course, we don't really know what he looked like, but this is a 16th century imaginary portrait. And Ptolemy was a polymath. He wrote treatises on astronomy, on music, on mathematics. He's actually most known as an astronomer, probably. One of the treatises he wrote was called "Geographia," on geography, by which he meant the mapping of the world, geo- Graphy, the writing of the world.

[11:53] And he conceived-- he knew, of course, the world, the Earth was round, and he-- it was a sphere-- and he conceived that the and this was the general Greek view-- The area in which people live, the oikoumine, was one quarter of a sphere. And they assumed-- They knew a little bit about about what was down here. Well, actually they didn't because here's the top part of Africa. They really didn't know much about that, but they assumed that that there had to be four other pieces of a landscape on this globe to balance it out.

[12:30] Thank you. So he came up with-- one of the things he invented was this projection. This is called Ptolemy's first projection. It's a cylindrical-- projection, and it shows 180 degrees from-- His Western end, which was the Fortunate Isles, People aren't sure whether, some people think it was the Canaries and Madeira. Some people think it was Cape Verde. But whatever it was, it was sort of the farthest out thing in the Atlantic that Ptolemy and other Greek geographers knew of And-- He drew it 180 degrees, in other words, halfway around the globe.

[13:06] And the extent north and south is from a little bit north of 60 degrees. the parallel of two Li, to-- the parallel opposite Mero. Mero is a town in North Sudan. or was a town in North Sudan at about 15 degrees uh below the equator. There's the, there's the equator. No, I'm sorry, there's the Econaut line. We're all north of the equator here. Thank you. So his second projection is a little more interesting.

[13:40] Suggests a little more of the globular shape. This is Ptolemy's second projection. And... This is the world map. that he came up with. Um And it shows the 180 degrees here, the fortunate isles out here, whatever they are. And you notice Africa is it's, pretty unknown down here. All we knew about was this part. And the assumption was that the Indian Ocean was a closed sea. C. just to orient you a little bit, and of course orient comes from the fact that many older maps were oriented with east at the top, hence orient.

[14:20] But to put you in the picture a little bit, This sort of misshapen thing is the Indian subcontinent. And this is the island of Sri Lanka. So long. This is probably the Mele Peninsula. Thank you. So he came up with a world map and also 26 regional maps. He made a map of Um. He made 10 maps of Europe, 4 maps of Africa, and 12 maps of Asia.

[14:53] Now, how did he place things? He talks actually about how to make a map. And the first thing he says is, well, Because of the earth, You really should start with a big ball. But that's kind of difficult. It would be hard for us today, too, to make to start with a big blank ball. So and then he said the next best thing is to start with a slice of a ball. So you have a big curved surface like that. And then you can make your map on that. But he says that also is difficult. So let's just work with flat paper. So he comes up with these two projections, and he proceeds to plot on them.

[15:26] Thank you. all the places he knew about. in the world. One of the main tools that would have been available at that time was was a quadrant. looking more or less like this, a device that you could sight through on this side and a little weighted plum hung down And if you cited, say, the North Star, that would read directly to your latitude. Latitude was relatively easy. And in the ancient world, some astronomers had very huge...

[16:00] models of these things, very large operational quadrants. And they could probably read quite quite accurately the latitude. Another way that he determined how far north and south the place was by knowing something about the difference between the longest, the length of day and the length of night at the equator. It's equal. A day is as long as a night. uh... Yes, at certain times of the year.

[16:33] But then as you go north, Here's the day of Miro, that place in northern Sudan. There's a one-hour difference between the longest day and the Shortest date. at Tsai Ing, a place in southern Egypt. There's a-- a two-hour difference. At Alexandria, it's about 3 and 1/2. By the time you get up here to the far north, like Denmark, It's about nine hours or more. So this is the kind of information he would have gathered from Roman legions operating in England and Germany and Spain and France, how long the longest day was in various places.

[17:14] So that would be how he would how he would uh... would set his latitude. So here, this is how he would plot the latitude. He knew that Alexandria... was 31 degrees north. He knew that quite accurately. he calculated that it was about 60 degrees and 30 minutes east of the Fortunate Islands. Now, how would he have known that? He talks about one way, of course, longitude is time. One hour of time is 15 minutes of longitude.

[17:47] And what we've learned, we know now that the most accurate way to understand longitude is to be able to carry an accurate clock from one place to another. Of course, it took thousands of years for that just to be finalized. It wasn't until John Harrison in the 1780s. that they actually had a chronometer accurate enough to carry time that way. But even in Ptolemy's day, he was aware of other solutions. He said if you had accurate information about the timing of eclipses.

[18:18] If you knew that... that an eclipse observed over here in Damascus, happened at midnight and it happened and it was observed at like 1:30 in the morning in Alexandria or I don't know in in Cadiz or something, then you would be able to use that as a as an instant of time and calculate the distance. So, you-- and he had some information like that. There was a little bit of information about eclipses. But a lot of information had been gathered about the distances of places.

[18:50] Of course, the Romans were wandering all over their empire. And they were very active in Britain. a little before Ptolemy's time. And so a place like London was nailed down. And it's probable that most of Ptolemy's longitudes are actually... uh... cobbled together from distance measurements. So from Alexandria here, he would have-- of course, he had access to the Alexandrian library.

[19:24] which was full of information and access presumably to all sorts of Roman records and itineraries and things like that. virtually all of which is lost to us now. But he knew that, for instance, if you went from Alexandria to Algiers or Tunis, that it was so far. They reckoned it was so many Roman miles. He actually had a system whereby if he had an itinerary distance between two places, he knew, of course, that they were far. any road is going to be a little windy, he allowed for one-fifth error. So he said if he had a distance of, of there was 500-- or 500 Roman miles, say, from Alexandria to Tunis, He said, well, OK, I'm going to count that as 400.

[20:12] And then he would establish the-- the longitude of Tunis. or of London, or of some other city. So in a very... in a very slow and painstaking way. I'd like to actually, I'd like to envision Ptolemy as working on one huge map. maybe on a wall or maybe even more conveniently on a floor like this. And having drawn out his projection, and saying, OK, here's Alexandria. And I know Damascus is this far away and it's at this Latitude, then I'm going to say it's here.

[20:49] and gradually shifting back and forth and moving things around he came up with his world map, which you saw earlier. um just a sort of a sideline in a way about the discovery of America Ptolemies, this is a globe made in 1492. by a German named Martin Boeheim, who was working in Portugal. Now, there's no evidence that Columbus ever saw this globe, although If there was one globe, there may have been more. I mean, I'm sure it wasn't a unique object. So it's not at all unlikely that you saw this globe or something like it, you know, at least.

[21:24] This was a concept that was clearly out there. And basically what this globe does is it takes Ptolemy's world and wraps it around. a globe. It happens though that because Ptolemy actually didn't accept Eratosthenes measurement, apparently, for the size of the globe. I don't remember what the reasons were, but he posited a somewhat smaller sphere for the earth. and he actually ended up exaggerating the longitudinal length of the oikumene. So when you wrap Ptolemies a little too large, around a little too small globe, You get a what we would call Pacific Ocean view that looks like this. This is a projection of the Boeheim globe uh... looking with Europe over here, And here's China.

[22:17] And these islands off of China, maybe that's could be the Philippines or some idea of that. Here's Sipangu, which is Japan. This is all information that came from Marco Polo. But what you can see is, I love this example because it shows you exactly what Columbus thought he was doing when he sailed. from Spain, His idea was to sail west until-- and these are the islands, the Canaries and the other islands in the Atlantic. was to sail past all those islands until he hit Other islands, off the coast of China.

[22:53] And indeed, he thought when he hit Hispaniola and those other places that those were some of these islands. I believe the story is that Columbus actually went to his grave thinking that he had, in fact, discovered these-- these East Indies. Thank you. So, um... Thank you. I want to show you in a little more detail how Ptolemy went about mapping, making one of his detailed maps. Ptolemy's first map of Europe, is the British Isles. And interestingly, the His arrangement of these regional maps, starting with the British Isles and the second map being the Iberian Peninsula.

[23:36] tradition became very firmly entrenched so that when the first modern atlas came out in 1570, Abraham Ortelius, He had a world map. And then his first... regional map, was the British Isles. and the second regional map, was Iberia. And in fact, most atlases made until the 20th century followed that pattern. It was Great Britain. It was Spain, then it was France, and then so on. The order kind of...

[24:12] falls apart after that, but that was how influential Ptolemy was. So this is a satellite view of-- of of Great Britain. And this is Ptolemy's map of Great Britain. And-- This is the kind of information that Ptolemy recorded. Lots of place names. OF TOWNS. A number of locations of rivers. We're not to take this interior detail at all seriously, but supposedly the river mouth would have been It's something that he plotted.

[24:50] Um. There are some names of peoples here. sort of general names. This is where the I can't read these names on here, but this is where this tribe lives, and this is where these people live. and a few physical features like some mountains, and even a big forest here in Scotland. Thank you. So how did he do that? Well, he started with a projection of that part of the world. And he put down his best guess as to where London was located, latitude and longitude. The Roman legions, of course, were all over Great Britain, and they undoubtedly had regular-- traveled between all these places and he had itineraries telling him how far certain things were.

[25:33] especially towns. Tamara actually I think is a river in Cornwall. MR. Corinium is-- I have to look at my crib sheet. Corinium is-- Sirincester? Um... Maridunum is a carmarthen in Wales. This is the promontory of Kent, which was apparently fairly well established because it was where the the Roman troops, the Roman ships, that would be the first landfall there in Britain. And so there were a number of places that he had Ratier, is Lester.

[26:09] Diva is Cheshire. Lindum is Lincoln. And Eboracum is York. And he adds the note in his geography that this is where the Sixth Legion. won a victory. So-- There were a number of places that he was able to establish fairly accurately. in relation to one another, where they were. And from these from some of these fixed locations. Some people even think that the Romans had a kind of a triangulation, had a kind of a a standard triangle that they worked off of here in surveying in making maps of England. And Ptolemy may actually have had a map of England that he got from from someone in the army. It's not at all unthinkable.

[26:57] that there was a sketch map and they said, "Yeah, well this is what this Southwest Promontory looks like. So anyway, using the best information he had, he came up with this outline. on his big map. Let's picture it on the floor here. And he also put in the river mouths. They said, well, this river is up here. so many miles north of this spot. point here and you know And so he plotted all these places on his map. Now, if he had just done that, and made these wonderful maps.

[27:29] That would have been enough. had they survived. But the problem with maps then and still today is that they're extremely Fragile. and extremely subject to wear and tear. And any of you who have a a car with a glove compartment, you can testify that, in fact, most maps get used to death, if they're used at all. So had Ptolemy made a big world map on parchment or on papyrus or something. And had he made a set of 26 regional maps, Maybe they would have survived. Maybe copies would have been made.

[28:08] and they would have survived the millennia. But-- and he undoubtedly did make, such maps. I mean he at least made one big map, we know that. But the reason Ptolemy's geography survived is because he digitized it. He took all of these, he started with these latitudes and longitudes of towns, and then he started plotting the a reading off of his book, his base map on the floor, let's say, he started reading off other coordinates. So if you'll follow these dots that I've placed around here, he would say, okay, well at this speed point of this bulge.

[28:47] It's 53 degrees, 30 minutes. Uh... of of latitude and about 22 degrees, 10 minutes of longitude. And he'd write that down. and He'd do this for the river mouths, for the promontories. for all these different features around the island. Um. dozens, perhaps as many as a couple hundred points for the British Isles. And he recorded those in Thank you.

[29:21] Tabular format. like this. This happens to be a Latin manuscript of Ptolemy's Geography. He would have written in Greek, and there are some extant Greek manuscripts. But basically, Ptolemy's geography as we know it, as it came down through the ages consisted of no maps, But-- a a textbook of how to do the projections, and a general description of how to map, and a list of 8,000 coordinates like this.

[29:53] Here's a place. Here's the latitude. and fraction and longitude and fraction. And actually, the way he indicated. uh degrees I mean minutes and, well he didn't really get into seconds, but the way he indicated minutes was, he would say if it was, we would call it 50 degrees 30 minutes, he would say, 50 degrees and a half. And if it was 50 degrees 45 minutes, he would say 50 degrees and a half and a quarter. uh They didn't have the concept of unified fraction.

[30:27] So... that the geography as it came down through the ages consisted of just Uh... data, just numeric, alphanumeric data. digital data, if you will. And it wasn't, there seems, there is some evidence that the Arabs had access to Ptolemy's geography, but it was pretty much lost to Western culture until the late 1200s, I'm sorry, the late 1300s, when a copy was discovered in, Constantinople.

[31:03] a Greek manuscript and a geographer in Constantinople said, here's a direction for how to make a world map. And he proceeded to plot out these eight having drawn We don't know if he did one big map or made regional maps, but he followed Ptolemy's instructions. He plotted out all these 8,000 places and produced This atlas. Well, that was a revolutionary thing. And that atlas very quickly got translated into Latin. and many, many copies were made of it.

[31:35] And it became... it became the first standard atlas of the world. This in about 1400. And it-- In many ways, it stayed the standard atlas of the world for at least 100 years. Ptolemy's geography was one of the first books to be published. The first edition with maps was 1477. a very early illustrated book. And there were multiple editions all through the 16th century. It wasn't until about 1570 when Ortelius came out with his Theatrum Orvis Terrarum, thought of as the first modern atlas. But until that time, at least until the 1520s, Ptolemy's maps from 125 AD, we're pretty much it.

[32:23] for understanding the geography of the world. Thank you. Of course, when the new discoveries happened, they had to think on their feet and there are several maps There's one map in particular I'm thinking of in the exhibit where you see what's basically a Ptolemaic world with some American stuff tacked on it. But to get back to-- to his map of Britain. Many of you may have wondered why Scotland is bent over like that. Um... I haven't read actually anywhere anyone saying this explicitly, but I'm pretty convinced this is what happened. If you turn that bit of Scotland up on end like this, 90 degrees.

[33:06] you'll see that It actually-- is not a bad rendition of Scotland. I mean, you get the basic... peninsula up here, this Moray Firth. You get this peninsula here. these little fjord-like things over on the west side. It's-- It's not bad for... 125 AD, drawn by a guy a couple thousand miles away who never left Alexandria. working from Verbal, uh... Descriptions, probably.

[33:40] But the reason he had to bend it was because of the island of Tuli. You remember that zonal diagram? It showed the sort of northernmost habitable place as the latitude of Thule. Well, truly, this is from a map of 1539 showing this. imaginary island. Some people think it actually might have been Iceland, or possibly some other faraway island in the North Atlantic. Basically, Ptolemy's information went back to Pythias, who said that Thule was six days sail north of Britain and is near the frozen sea. The idea was that when you got that far north, much beyond beyond 60 degrees north that the entire sea was frozen, then it would obviously be uninhabitable.

[34:26] So-- Ptolemy was in a pickle because he had He had a lot of information from the Roman legions about Britain. and about Scotland, and he clearly knew that when you got up here, there was still about this much more to go. But he had the problem that here was his Thule. He had-- He had plotted Thule as this location. And according to Pythias, it had to be It had to be six days sail north of Britain. and if he put it up this way it just didn't fit. So he did what a lot of scientists do today. They try to uh...

[35:05] adjust that you know understand the data and the way that's most that seems to make the most sense. And for him, he tries to preserve the length of Britain while at the same time recognizing that Thule is pretty much the northern limit of of habitation. So he simply bent it. Thank you. That's my view and I challenge anyone. If anyone has another explanation, they're welcome to give it. So anyway, this is Ptolemy's world. The same world that's wrapped around that Boeheim globe, although the Boeheim globe also includes information from Marco Polo, which extends beyond uh... trying out here gives us Japan.

[35:44] Thank you. Moving now to the Mediterranean. Um... We're going to talk about another... great Ptolemies, the discovery of Ptolemies geography in 1400 or thereabouts, is just an epochal thing in the history of cartography. The whole idea of mapping on a grid, latitude and longitude, that all comes from from Ptolemy. But there was another tradition that had started a couple hundred years earlier.

[36:20] that in the Mediterranean that is even-- that is sort of a parallel tradition. And that's the tradition of the portal on chart. This is the first the earliest known copy of a Portland chart. And some of the characteristics of Portland charts, well, they're almost... all was drawn on an animal skin, on vellum. This is the neck of the animal. Can you see the outline here? This is that we're looking at the Mediterranean. Down here is the uh...

[36:52] uh... the uh... Straight of Gibraltar. And here's North Africa, here's the Italian, the boot of Italy, Here's the eastern... the Eastern Shore, the Mediterranean, and actually the Black Sea was almost always included in portal and charts. And the Black Sea has been somewhat eroded here. This map, one of the most important maps in the history of cartography, was found in a Paris junk shop in 1840-something.

[37:26] and now lives in the bibliothek Nassau. Thank you. Here's a detail of-- of the cartesan, as it's called, which shows you in greater detail some of the characteristics. invariably have a circle, a circular, grid If you step back, you can actually see um You can see a couple of great circles here inscribed that have wind roses in the middle and radiating radiating wind lines or rum lines as they're called, R-H-U-M-V.

[38:04] The place names on portal and charts are always written inland. They tried to leave the water spaces as open as possible. Um... Typically, the rum lines were different colors. Some were green, some were red, some charts have black ones. Um... Another characteristic-- oh, they have-- they show-- They showed tiny little rocks. There's another example that I can show you some more. symbols. But-- and the other thing is that there is no up on a portal and chart. There's just no, you can't say, "Oh, this is meant to be up." The lettering, if you'll see, these are meant to be read from that way, And then down here...

[38:45] Thank you. I can't quite make that out. They're still read that way, but over here they're read this way. If you go around an island, you'd have to turn the chart around like that. It didn't really have-- It didn't really have a natural pulpy. Thank you. This is another portal and chart. This is from the Newberry's collection. This is our earliest portal and we have a couple dozen portal and charts and atlases. This is 1456 done by a Rosselli from Majorca, he signs it up here in the neck.

[39:16] And again, it's the outline of-- the Mediterranean with the Black Sea. Some of them also went up-- most of them went up the west coast of Europe, included the British Isles usually. Um... Very often they would put these maps, these flags around the around the border. Um, This, many of the portal and charts that have survived, obviously the Cart-Pizan is a pretty pretty tattered and torn thing and was not probably terribly attractive when it was made.

[39:51] Some of the portal and charts that have survived are very pristine, lovely things that probably were made for for you know, rich clients or for parlor use or library use. But there are some that give evidence of having been to sea, and I think this is one of them. Over here on this side. There are these holes. That's where it was nailed onto a wooden roller. And over here on the neck is a little hole. There would have been a leather thong through there. So you'd roll it up and tie it with that thong.

[40:22] stick it in a cubbyhole on board ship. And it's definitely seen some wear here from being rolled and unrolled. Even some of these flags have obvious signs of ink the-- the pigment having having gotten wet. So I don't know. I like to think this one may actually have gone to sea. Okay. Anyway, How were they used? This is another portal and atlas from the Newberry. It's actually a, this is an atlas, this is an opening of two pages I've had to join the sheets here, the digital copies.

[40:56] But to show you how a mariner might use a Portland chart like this, If you wanted to go from This Melilla, I think it is, on the north coast of Africa. to this point over here, Cabo da Gata. CAP. Yeah, a cape of-- cat cape. He-- In other words, he wanted to sail a course more or less like that. He could draw his course on there or lay a parallel ruler between those places.

[41:27] There's one side of the parallel ruler, and then he'd swing out the other arm of the ruler until he till he lined it up with a wind rose. And in this case, As you can see, That's the north line. North by east. north-northeast, it's actually in between north by east and north-northeast. The mariner starting out from here would try to get his compass to read a little bit east of North by East. hopefully would strike his point.

[41:59] but hopefully not Not literally, because as a matter of fact, there is a-- There's an indication here that there's a big rock there. And I think if you're familiar with modern nautical charts, Something very like that is used today to indicate a hazard to navigation like a rock, little dots like this to indicate shoals. Some of these portal and charts even have a little ship skeleton to indicate a wreck, a sunken ship.

[42:35] So the main tool was a compass. such as this one. We don't really have any really ancient compasses. The compass was Uh... They used to say that it was invented in China and carried to the Mediterranean. Now people think that It may have been independently invented. But anyway, there's textual evidence that people talking about sailing with compasses sailing by the magnetized needle in the early 1200s. And so that's about the time the cart Pisan comes out, sometime in the late 1200s.

[43:10] The earliest compasses may have been just a needle actually floating on water, held up by surface tension. Sometimes they would push the needle through a straw, And that would keep it afloat, but I'm sure by a very early age they had a They had devised this method of a card with the needle attached underneath. And they would have needed an hourglass or, in some cases, a minute glass or a half-minute glass. And navigators from at least the late Middle Ages up until well into the uh...

[43:46] 18th century, we're using a log and line to gather information about their speed. Basically, you needed-- you needed-- a spool with a lot of line on it. You needed this log here or chip. and you needed a a glass that-- was good for half a minute. And the way it worked was something like this. I think you must have needed at least three men. One guy is holding the log real.

[44:18] Another guy is holding the 30 second glass. And another guy is holding the actual chip here, which is weighted at the bottom. He throws this thing over the back of the ship. And it hits the water and starts bobbing along. And, of course, the water catches it here, so it's... sort of riding up in the water. And he waits until... Uh-- about the length of the ship. There's a red rag tide there, and that indicates that the thing is now far enough behind the ship so that it's free of the wake of the ship and supposedly it's it's kind of digging into more untroubled waters.

[44:57] And when that red line goes over, the goes over the rail, he says, "Turn." And the guy with the 30-second glass turns the glass, And then they start counting how many knots go over. And the knots are placed, well... Apparently there were a couple different lengths of knot, but the knots are placed at regular intervals along there. You count how many knots go over and when the glass runs out, the guy says stop. And then the guy holding the reel holds it. They count how many knots have gone over.

[45:30] and they record that information. on this device, which is a Travers board. and This is a wonderfully simple device that It didn't require any great learning. An illiterate seaman could use it as long as he was familiar with the points of the compass and could read the numbers, I guess, from 1 to 12. The idea is this: here are all the points of the compass that you could possibly steer each of these concentric rows of circles is a half hour.

[46:05] So this would be the first half hour of a watch. the second half hour, the third half hour, and so on. up to the four hour watch. a very standard way of breaking up the day at sea. from early on. And attached to the middle, there is a cord. and you have a bunch of little pegs. to go along with it, which you can push next to the cord into a hole. So what this tells us is that in the first half hour of the watch, They were sailing north by West.

[46:40] on that course. And in the second half hour of the watch, they were still sailing north by west. But when the Third half hour came along, they had shifted their course to-- this point of the compass. And in the fourth half hour-- After two hours of sailing, They had shifted it to this point. So you'd keep doing this, and for the four hours of a watch, you'd have a perfect record of the course you had steered. Now, how fast were you going? Well, every hour they would do this business with the log.

[47:14] the chip log. And they would plot those down here. Each of these lines is one hour of the watch. First hour. second hour. Third hour. the fourth dollar. What this tells us is that in the first hour of the watch, They were going six knots. So they put the little peg there. In the second hour of the watch, I'm doing all this pointing, and I made this elaborate slide to show you this. I forgot about it. Um... So there's the first hour, 6 knots. In the second hour, 8 knots, but a little more than 8 knots.

[47:54] Eight and a half knots. they could record down to the quarter of a knot. So that's a fairly accurate example estimate of your speed. So at the end of a four hour watch, the seaman could hand this board over to the captain and or whoever was-- keeping records. and they would have a complete record of distance and direction and speed FOR-- for that watch, which they could write down into a log. Well, um... How did Portland-- I see-- Jeff looking at his watch. Yeah, okay, that clock is right. I'm doing all right.

[48:31] How did-- How did this information get recorded? Ultimately, a lot of A lot of this, of Siemens information about distances from ports and things like that, got recorded in itinerary form like this. It's strictly-- well, I will say, I will call it, again, a digital record. I mean, it certainly uses numbers. Here's a Roman-- there are Roman numerals in here, and alphanumeric characters to record certain information. And this is the kind of information they record. These are called Portolani.

[49:07] books of sailing directions between ports. And this is the most famous Portolani painting. is the Compasso de Navigare from the, again, the late 1200s. And here's just one of the indications that go from Fennaro, this port, to Felia. It's 30 miles to the northwest. And then there's sometimes notes about about the place, but it's just one thing like that after another going around the whole course of the Mediterranean and the Black Sea.

[49:44] That's what's in the Compasso del Navigare. Now, people have long-- imagined that there had to be some connection between these these portalani, these books of directions like that, and the finished portal and charts. But it wasn't until-- A couple decades ago, there had a retired physician. Jonathan Landman, actually took the trouble to convert all of the measurements, all of the information in the Compasso da Navigare into into distances, standard distances and directions. He took, when he read Northwest, he turned that into so many degrees. When he read North by Northwest, he converted that into so many degrees. And then he plotted down the distances and those bearings and started to see what would happen.

[50:38] And in fact, he discovered that-- the Compasso del Navigare, If you plot down all those distances and directions, It does, in fact... I didn't mean to do that. What do I do? Just do this. It does in fact generate a map of the Mediterranean. Now, of course, it didn't... come out exactly like this. Any of you know anything about surveying know that there's something called error of closure whenever you survey around an area.

[51:17] it's not going to end up perfectly like that. some of this may be way down here or something. But as long as you're working with a closed area And this is virtually closed here at the Strait of Gibraltar. you know how to adjust it. So you just kind of adjust a little bit on every on every angle to make it fit like this. Well, how close was it? Well... Pretty close. There's the modern outline of the Mediterranean. So, we're pretty sure this is how the basic portal and chart was generated from these from these tables, really, or verbal lists of distances and directions.

[51:58] And of course it didn't happen all at once like that. It wasn't that somebody There was suddenly this Compasso della Navagari and somebody took that and plotted it and voila, Portland chart. I mean, it must have been a long procedure involving many, many errors and many mistakes many partial maps, I suppose, of different areas. But it's pretty clear, I think, that that is the -- That is the-- the source arm And now I'm going to say a little bit about a more continental approach.

[52:33] the The Mediterranean, we discovered, is pretty much mapped through very accurate, very small-scale Uh-- measurements of distance and direction around the perimeter. Um-- Much the same thing using many of the same instruments is happening on a larger scale when we come to a continent. One early map of this part of Africa. Now we're going to look at the-- at the young some of the Portuguese efforts to map the West Coast of Africa. Now, one other instrument that would have been involved besides the quadrant that we saw, Ptolemy was holding a quadrant, There was an instrument called the cross staff, which works the same way. You cite an object and you align this bar of this thing with the horizon.

[53:25] and this top of the bar with whatever you're citing, North Star or Sun, and you read an angle off of this sliding bar. Um. There's a model in the exhibit here. There are lots of wonderful instruments in this exhibit that are Some of which I've never seen before, very neat. addition to the exhibit. And in there is a backstaff, which is the same principle as this cross-staff, but instead of having to look directly at the sun. you turn your back to the sun, and this has a little mirror on it here, or a little vein, and you can read the shadow.

[54:01] the shadow of the sun instead of directly. accomplishes the same thing. So using logs and lines and, um, instruments like the quadrant or the cross staff to measure latitude and Um... the Portuguese gradually began to map Africa. Now this is a portion of a 1489 map, and I've trimmed everything else away. except what Ptolemy knew. This is pretty much the Africa that Ptolemy knew.

[54:32] It consisted of the northwest the north coast here, the North Shore of the Mediterranean. You know about the Atlas Mountains. He knew about the Nile, and they knew, or... thought they knew that the Nile had its source in the mountains of the moon, somewhere way down south in Africa. They also-- knew or thought they knew about some big lakes here, which I have no doubt were uh Lake Victoria and Lake Nyazaland, you know, or whatever.

[55:03] like our-- just, you know, The word was there were big lakes down there towards the end of the Nile. So that was Ptolemy's Africa. Well-- by the time the Portuguese really started to make a a dedicated effort to try to see if they could get around Africa if it was in fact Um. if it in fact did not enclose the the Indian Ocean. they started to sail down the West Coast and This is...

[55:37] This was a very long process. 1432, another A few years later, they get a little further to the River of Gold. Um... Now we're-- 10 years later. Here we are. A long time later, It took the Portuguese-- something like 50 years. to get to get the bulge of Africa really nailed down.

[56:11] But, and so they would have done this in exactly the same way by getting-- by getting latitude readings on these various river mouths and things like that and then by keeping track of their distances and directions. And finally, the big push to see if they couldn't get around the continent, and in 1485, no 1480 seven, eight, Bartolomeo Diaz actually rounds the cape of good faith.

[56:44] hope and gets as far as the Great Fish River, where he can see the coastline trending north. So this is the Africa that-- that is known after Diaz's expedition in 1488, and in fact this map is a world map. made by a German called Henricus Martellus in 1489. This is a manuscript at the British Library. There's another copy of the Martellus map, which with very much the same geography at Yale.

[57:16] And of course, you can see this is still Ptolemy's truncated South Asia and his very huge Ceylon, Caprobana. And the -- but here it does have some indication that there is from Marco Polo that there are these islands off the coast of China. So that is... That is how continents are mapped in a very basic way, and that is how North America ultimately was mapped too. Now, I want to conclude with a-- a case study of how-- how the interior of continents might have been mapped.

[57:53] or was in this case how it was mapped. These are the Great Lakes. OF COURSE. And I think you can see that it would be-- It would be a much different proposition to try to map the Great Lakes by coming in here and making a circuit of the lake and then measuring this distance down here and they're making a circuit of this lake and circuit of this lake and stringing those all together into a, you know, in the way we did with the Mediterranean, that would have been a tall order. And in fact, it didn't happen because the only people On these lakes for hundreds of years were voyagers in birch bark canoes.

[58:34] So-- You ended up with fairly crude maps of the Great Lakes. This is actually the first map to show all five of the Great Lakes. And you can see Lake Superior, they obviously were up here in in near this traits of Mackinaw and They knew there was a big lake opening up there, but they didn't know. how big or where it ended. This is presumably-- Lake Michigan, although Lac de Pouin, the name of Green Bay is usually Bay de Pouin, So that would be Lake Michigan, Huron, Ontario and Erie.

[59:09] But I'm showing you a series of maps attempt to represent the Great Lakes to show you that There's no such thing as as uh... nice linear progressions in cartography. We like to think that in general, you know, every map is an improvement on the last map and, you know, and I suppose in some cases that is the case. But if you look at a lot of early maps, you'll see a lot of a lot of stumbling, a lot of just plain I don't know, making things up.

[59:44] Cartographers have always borrowed wildly from other cartographers. I mean, until Until very recently, when we can actually go to something like Google Earth or Google NASA and get or the sub-- digital image laboratory and get up TODAY. photographs of the Earth's surface until very recently, When a cartographer was asked to make a map of such and such area, the first thing he did was find another map of that area. and use it as a base map and maybe adapt it or change the scale or something like that.

[1:00:14] Most maps are actually made from other maps. And-- At this time, two people were copying each other. So as we go through these various images, of the Great Lakes, you'll see some some things that look the same, you'll say, "Oh, that looks like he copied that from so-and-so." One of the things that I'm always interested in is when it comes to the Great Lakes, If you can define the shape of Michigan, both its southern peninsula and its northern peninsula. You have almost completed a map of the Great Lakes.

[1:00:46] And if you'll watch Michigan through this series of slides, I think you'll see that It was a very hard little peninsula to map. Surprisingly, this is a nice example of how uh... progression is not linear in cartography. This happens to be a very early-- in fact, the first map of like superiors. 1671. We know it was done by the Jesuits. It's published in the Jesuit relations. We don't really know who did it. Father Alouez was one. Father Marquette may actually have been involved. He was up here at at the mission on the Apostle Islands.

[1:01:22] But it's actually a very accurate map of Lake Superior. It has Isle Royale here. It has just a couple of little minor islands that are actually there. And the reason they were able to do this is we know that the Jesuits actually made a pretty much complete circuit. of the lake in canoes. Yeah. Counting paddle strokes perhaps, I don't know, but estimating the distance in some way. and taking readings of latitude.

[1:01:55] with an astrolabe or with a quadrant. Um... Here again, Michigan is a little distorted. Look at Lake Michigan. On many of these early maps, actually there are some where it's, It's swinging way less weight. Some where it's almost straight up and down, and some where it's way over at this angle. Michigan is like a pendulum. Um... Franck Hollande, very influential French mapmaker. He seems to have relied, I think, a little bit on the Jesuit map. He knew about it anyway.

[1:02:28] um... cornelli Italian cartographer, 1680s. MR. This looks like it's copied from the Jesuit map, except for some reason he thought he had to make it much wider. Bye. Thank you. Um. Some fairly outlandish figures here. where this comes from. This is the beginning of the of adding islands to Lake Superior. In the late 17th century, there were a couple of French manuscript maps made that just suddenly put in imaginary islands and named them after influential characters in France. And those islands got picked up on later maps. It's always the bad stuff that gets copied.

[1:03:13] First. So-- Um... These depictions, I don't know where they come from. Hennepin was generally not considered very reliable traveler or cartographer. D'Elia was one of the best map makers. And actually, it's not a bad representation of the Great Lakes. He's clearly using the Jesuit map here. for Lake Superior. And Lake Michigan is actually fairly reasonably oriented. uh... herman mall one of the more imaginative cartographers.

[1:03:51] Captain Cyprian Southak, the first First map of North America published in America. published in Boston in 1717, but Where he got his Great Lakes from, I do not know. Very strange. I don't think there was a model for that. Um. Popple, a part of Henry Popple's map, the southern sheets showing the Gulf of Mexico is in the exhibit. One of the-- one of the best maps of North America. in the 18th century.

[1:04:22] I have fairly reasonable... Michigan and Lake Michigan, but Notice Lake Superior. Here he's got Isle Royale and then here's Isle Filippo Pontchartrain, and I can't quite read it, but there were three or four or five islands just thrown in there to flatter the French officials. In fact, each one is named after another official. It's nice to have an island named after you. Thank you. Here again, Lake Michigan, way off to the southwest.

[1:04:55] Michigan Peninsula, just a little point. This is the Mitchell map, the second, maybe the most important 18th century map of North America. most important map in American history. largely because this is the map that in 1783 was laying in front of the the commissioners in Paris who drew the Treaty of Peace, and they drew a red line on this map showing the border. dividing the United States from-- British colonies.

[1:05:27] Mitchell's map is interesting in that this is the This is actually the Newberry's copy. badly reproduced, but our copy is colored so that you can see that the uh... the uh... colonies were, at least the southern colonies were shown with their western borders extending to the Pacific, according to the colonial charters. There's a wonderful copy of the Mitchell map upstairs in the exhibit too. It isn't colored quite this dramatically. If you see, the Charter of North Carolina was supposed to extend to the Pacific. Now if you're wondering where where Western Tennessee would have been had that actually happened. This is how it would sort out. Monterey would be in West Tennessee and San Luis Obispo, nice wine country in there.

[1:06:22] Could have been great. um So a couple more maps. Ah... attempting to show the Great Lakes. I'm going to concentrate on a couple of maps by this English cartographer named John Kerry. who publishes a series of maps. of regions of the United States like this. beginning in 18.5. and I guess if you look at the great, well they're recognizable and he's gotten rid of the fake-- no, he hasn't gotten rid of the fake islands. They're still there.

[1:06:54] There's Royale, but there's Philippot. In fact, this actually... Um... went back to the Mitchell map. The Mitchell map was used as I said to draw the Treaty of Peace. Can I get back there? How far away was it? Um. It's when they drew the line for the border, they drew it up here and they said, okay, They drew it across this island and to Isle Royale. And they went south of Isle Royale. And then they went up a river here. And in the treaty it said, Uh...

[1:07:26] It said north of the isles Philippot and Pontchartrain. and Isle Royale or something. And so they cited in the actual treaty document two islands that just didn't exist. And so for the next uh 70 years. They were looking and the British were arguing that, "Oh, this is what Isle Pontchartrain was." And the Americans said, "No, no, no, it was this island." Finally, it took a long-- it wasn't until the 1840s when they finally ruled that, in fact, those islands didn't exist.

[1:08:02] But here they are, 1805, it still shows the border going across the non-existent. Island. So anyway, this is Cary's 1805 map. And that would have served fine, except when in 1805, Ohio became a state. And so in later editions, he had to add Ohio. Here, the general geography is pretty good. There's Chicago. The portage. St. Joseph, Michigan. Detroit. Thank you. Thank you.

[1:08:34] But when he got to 1825, By that time, there were already-- Ohio had become a state. Indiana had become a state. Illinois had become a state. And He had to fit them in somehow. He didn't change the basic geography. He didn't have any better information. But-- you can see it gave him some problems because Here, for instance, is the bottom of Lake Michigan. Um, Well, Illinois, first of all, is landlocked. It has no lake. This is Illinois. Um...

[1:09:05] Fort Dearborn in Chicago is in Wisconsin, California. what's not Wisconsin. Um, Indiana is here. It just, it was very hard to fit in. And the reason was he had He actually had a very good observation for the Oh, yeah. This is... indicating his basic difficulties. How do you fit three states? like that. into that space between the Mississippi and the western border of Pennsylvania.

[1:09:36] Thank you. Thank you. Now he knew for a certainty about, he actually, his longitude for the west end of Lake Superior is pretty good. It's actually right about 92 degrees west, which is what he shows. His longitude for the east end of Lake Ontario is also Right on. also the western border of Pennsylvania. The reason that's right on is because of the Mason-Dixon line. which of course was surveyed on the ground with guys lugging chains and blazing through trees and making paths.

[1:10:07] and marking on the ground the how many hundred miles to the western border of Pennsylvania. So he had those three people those things pretty well fixed. But he was very vague about the Mississippi River. There weren't any accurate observations out there. and this this lake system in here was just uh, Very, very-- little known. That's the western border of Ohio. This is the western border of Indiana, and this is the westernmost bulge of the of Illinois on the Mississippi.

[1:10:45] So how did this... little problem gets solved. Well, unlike our other examples, it wasn't solved from the water. It was solved on land, and it was solved by people dragging chains like this. across the country and orienting them with compasses like this. The general-- in the Northwest Territory, which was this area here. was was decided to divide it completely, into parcels. Of course, you folks down here, you have the meets and bounds system, where you just sort of said from this tree to that rock to the river and then back.

[1:11:24] but they decided they wanted something a little more orderly for the Northwest Territories, and so they devised this... system of public lands consisting of six-mile square townships and divided into 36. square sections. And they first did this in the very early eastern part of Ohio in what was called the Seven Ranges. That was done in 1787. They were just kind of experimenting, really. They didn't quite know how they were going to expand this grid across the Northwest Territories, And Ohio is really very much a...

[1:12:00] experiment. If you look at the the land surveys of Ohio. There are slightly different orientations and they don't match up perfectly. They didn't really have a standard meridian. But by the time they got into Indiana, they started establishing a standard meridian. So you'd have one north-south line there, where you would number all the ranges and all the townships. And Indiana and Illinois were both settled from the south. So, They became states 1816, 1818. But at the time they attained statehood, All the whole northern part of the states were or on Well, they weren't unpopulated, but they were lightly populated.

[1:12:46] did not have the benefit of the township and range surveys. In Illinois-- uh... by eighteen 30 about, they had actually surveyed a little extension up here because They wanted to build a canal from Chicago down to the Illinois River, the Illinois-Michigan Canal. And so they divided that. and the federal government started getting rid of that land. Meanwhile, on either side of it, it was still Indian territory. country. So as these surveys progressed, they bumped up into the water.

[1:13:21] And it was only really when This survey got up here in about 1830. that they were able to say, with considerable certainty and accuracy This is where... the western shore of Lake Michigan hits at that point. And as the survey Continues. Wisconsin becomes a state in '48. gradually the entire lower peninsula of Michigan, and of course the entire Lake Michigan, and the location of the Mississippi River, They're all determined.

[1:13:55] accurately by measurements on the ground. Briefly, this is what happened. Starting with the Mason-Dixon line, which after all starts in tidewater, and was measured uh... by chain, and compass and then extending the general land office surveys west and north. and east and west. They finally... were able to determine the outline of the Great Lakes. And that's how this little bit of geography got mapped, strictly from the land.

[1:14:35] So... That's all I have to say, but I'm happy to answer questions if you have any. I'll try to answer them, that is. Yes? Thank you.

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讲座：《他们是如何制作那些地图的》由麦克朗自然历史与文化博物馆（https://www.youtube.com/@mcclungmuseum）制作，依据CC BY 3.0（https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/）许可。源视频：https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wbwmXKwkgaw。本页是视频的文字转录稿，添加了段落分隔和时间戳；创作者与Vidleaf无关联，也不为其背书。Vidleaf添加了AI标点和AI生成的摘要；原始措辞仍可在本页查看。

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最后更新于2026-10-21

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讲座：“他们是如何制作那些地图的”

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高度如何扩展地图制作视野

历史地图与卫星图像

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托勒密的《地理学》通过坐标流传下来

托勒密的《地理学》及其复兴

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使用波特兰海图绘制航线

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